K. Vivekanandan, A.N. Rao and V. Ramanatha Rao editors

The International Plant Genetic Resources Institute (IPGRI) is an autonomous international scientific organization operating under the aegis of the Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research (CGIAR). The international status of IPGRI is conferred under an Establishment Agreement which, by March 1997, had been signed by the Governments of Algeria, Australia, Belgium, Benin, Bolivia, Brazil, Burkina Faso, Cameroon, Chile, China, Congo, Costa Rica, d’Ivoire, Cyprus, Czech Republic, Denmark, Ecuador, Egypt, Greece, Guinea, Hungary, India, Indonesia, Iran, Israel, Italy Jordan, Kenya, Malaysia, Mauritania, Morocco, Pakistan, Panama, Peru, Poland, Portugal, Romania, Russia, Senegal, Slovak Republic, Sudan, Switzerland, Syria, Tunisia, Turkey, Uganda and Ukraine. IPGRI’s mandate is to advance the conservation and use of plant genetic resources for the benefit of present and future generations, IPGRI works in partnership with other organizations, undertaking research, training and the provision of scientific and technical advice and information, and has a particularly strong programme link with the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. Financial support for the research agenda of IPGRI is provided by the Governments of Australia, Austria, Belgium, Canada, China, Denmark, Finland, France, Germany, India, Italy, Japan, the Republic of Korea, Luxembourg, Mexico, the Netherlands, Norway, the Philippines, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, the UK and the USA, and by the Asian Development Bank, CTA, European Union, IDRC, IFAD, Interamerican Development Bank, UNDP and the World Bank.

The geographical designations employed and the presentation of material in this publication do not imply the expression of any opinin what so ever on the part of IPGRI, the CGIAR or ACIAR concerning the legal status of any country, territory, city or area or its authorities, or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries. Similarly, the views expressed are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the views of these participating organizations. 

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INBAR is a research network promoting better production and use of bamboo and rattan. It is currently co-sponsored by the International Development Research Centre of Canada (IDRC) and the UN International Fund for Agricultural Development. The major areas of research on the two commodities include socio-economics, production, Biodiversity, genetic resources and conservation, post-harvest technology and information including technology transfer and training. INBAR is hosted by the IDRC Regional Office in New Delhi.

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India  

FORTIP (Forest Tree Improvement Project) is one of the leading UNDP/FAO supported forestry programmes in the Asia-Pacific region aimed at improving forest productivity through genetic enhancement of forest species commonly used in national forest planting programmes. 

FORTIP operates through a well organized regional network of member countries with the active support of a number of regional programmes and international institutions engaged in the furtherance of forestry in the region. The network consists of eleven countries - Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, Indonesia, Malaysia, Nepal, Pakistan, Philippines, Sri Lanka, Thailand and Vietnam.

FORTIP’s activities are strategically planned to cover genetic improvement of many important forest tree species such as teak, gmelina, eucalypts, acacias, dalbergias, mahoganies and non-wood species such as bamboo and rattan. 

To promote the work of FORTIP and to avoid overlaps of activities, cooperation with related programmes is very important. In this regard FORTIP collaborates with several international organizations and institutions.

Citation: Vivekanandan K., A. N. Rao and V Ramanatha Rao (eds.) 1998. Bamboo and Rattan Genetic Resources in Certain Asian Countries.IPGRI-APO, Serdang, Malaysia. 

ISBN-92-9043-3647 @ International Plant Genetic Resources Institute (IPGRI) Regional Office for Asia, the Pacific and Oceania (APO) 1998. 

Foreword 

Preface

Bamboo Genetic Resources of Bangladesh Ratan Lal Banik 

Bamboo Genetic Resources in India

Bamboo Genetic Resources in Indonesia 

Conservation and Improvement of Bamboo Genetic Resources in the Philippines

Bamboo Genetic Resources in Sri Lanka 

Rattan Genetic Resources in the Philippines 

Rattan Genetic Resources in Sri Lanka 

Bamboo and rattan (BR) are gifts of nature to mankind in tropical and subtropical regions of the world. Their distribution and density are uneven among the various developing countries. They are very well used by the local people in their daily lives and also cultivated on a small scale in home gardens and around the cultivated lands. Bulk of the market supplies are derived from the forests freely harvested involving trade and economic gains. When human populations were small and extraction of natural resources was limited, it was generally assumed that supplies would be available for a long time. However, with population increase and over exploitation, it is now realised, that the BR stocks in the forests have depleted at a faster rate than expected, reaching the levels of extinction of certain species in some countries. The benefits accrued and profits made were also considerably reduced effecting the lives of rural people who depend on BR for their earnings.

Human intervention, especially of those concerned with forest resources, became imperative to conserve BR resources by using in situ and ex situ methods. The message on conservation and improvement was repeated and recommendations were made at the end of several international and regional meetings emphasing that resource survey of BR should be undertaken on a global basis and very urgently

The collaborative activities of INBAR-IPGRI started in 1993 with the joint meeting organised in Dehradun, India to identify BR priority species for further research, conservation and development. FORTIP also participated at the meeting. As a result of further discussion and joint deliberation, FORTIP commissioned several experts in certain countries to prepare technical reports on genetic resources of BR. The experts  were also directed to outline the programme for further research in future to conserve and improve BR resources for sustainable use. Identifying and qualifying genetic resources was a further advancement over understanding the resources available in general.

The reports received from authors were scrutinized and edited to prepare a comprehensive publication. It is realised that such valuable reports are so far prepared only for a few countries in South and S.E. Asian region. Similar reports should also be made for other BR growing countries so that pertinent species relevant to individual countries in the region can be conserved for sustainable use, adopting suitable methods and procedures as necessary. Such efforts would no doubt lead to the conservation of the resources of many countries and also help or even encourage to sustain the cultural values of the people and enhance the production of various products for economic benefit. 

The publication of this volume records further the close cooperation and efforts of the three organisations (INBAR, FORTIP and IPGRI) that have common objectives on BR improvement. All those who have worked hard to produce this useful document need to be congratulated for their dedication and successful task. This volume provides useful information for research development. No doubt one more significant step has been taken suggesting suitable methods to save and improve the valuable resources of BR in certain Asian countries

Ken Riley

Regional Director

IPGRI-APO  

Bamboo and Rattan are two important plant groups of non-wood forest plants upon which nearly half the world’s population is, in one way or another, dependent upon. They have been used, especially by the rural people, from time immemorial. Their innumerable uses and cultural values have been documented in many languages. 

Despite the important role they play in the life of people, they have remained as "Cinderallas" of the forests for quite a long time. It was only a few decades ago that national institutions and international organisations began to pay serious attention to the scientific study and development of these two important groups. 

The International Development and Research Centre (IDRC) of Canada pioneered the formation of an informal network in Asia with the participation of several national institutions to promote research and development of bamboo and rattan species. In 1991, the informal network established by IDRC, became the now famous International Network for Bamboo and Rattan (INBAR). 

Besides, IDRC and INBAR two other international agencies-the International Plant Genetic Resources Institute (IPGRI) and the FAO/ UNDP Regional Project on Forest Tree Improvement (FORTE’) - have been quite active in work related to genetic resources of bamboo and  rattan species, the former globally in the south and south-east Asia.

FORTE’ has been assisting its eleven member countries to identify, develop and use genetically improved seed and planting materials of the important forest species, including bamboo and rattan.

As part of the overall programme on the genetic improvement of bamboo and rattan species in Asia,FORTIP commissioned a number of studies in some of its member countries to determine the extent and diversity of the local resource base, their utilisation, the identification of potential "hot spots" and strategies to develop and conserve them. 

The studies undertaken by leading authorities in the different countries provide a wealth of information and this publication provides an edited version of the reports prepared by the authors.

We are extremely grateful to the authors for their excellent work on the two important plant groups that will always remain useful to humankind, if they are used on a sustainable basis 

Vivekanandan

 CTA, FORTIP

Bangladesh Forest Research Institute

Chittagong

Geographical location and area: Bangladesh lies in the north-eastern part of South Asia roughly between 20.75" and 25.75" N and 88.30" and 92.75" E. The country is bounded by India on the west and north and Myanmar on the east and the Bay of Bengal on the south. The area of the country is 55,598 sq.miles or 143,998 km ² .

Except the hilly regions in the north-east and south-east, some areas of high lands in the north and north-western parts, the country consists of low, flat and fertile land. Bangladesh is basically a plain land country. however the hill areas account for about 12% of the total land surface covering about 17,335.03 km ² . in the greater districts of Chittagong Hill Tracts, Chittagong, Sylhet and some other areas. 

Climate: The country enjoys generally a tropical monsoon climate. The average annual rainfall in Bangladesh varies from 1500 mm to 5500 mm which falls mostly between last part of May to August and period of dry months is from October to March. The relative humidity is correspondingly high and ranges from 60 percent and upwards. The atmospheric temperature ranges from 741°C. It rarely falls below 5^OC, mostly remaining within 20 and 35°C. Maximum rainfall is recorded in the hilly and southern part of Chittagong and northern hilly part of Sylhet districts, while minimum is observed in the western part of the country. 

Forest types and natural bamboo vegetation: The major natural bamboo producing areas of Bangladesh are the forests of Sylhet, Chittagong and Cox’s Bazar. The Kassalong, Rankhiang, Sangoo and Matamuhuri Reserves are the main bamboo producing areas in the geographical regions of Chittagong Hill Tracts (CHT). In unclassed state forests of CHT, bamboos grow in the sheltered valleys but due to shifting cultivation, the quality of bamboos is very poor. Different bamboo species either as understorey in association with tree species or as pure stand have naturally grown in the semi-evergreen and moist deciduous forests of the hills of CHT, Cox’s Bazar, Sylhet and northern Mymensingh. The shade cast by the bamboos is such that there is normally no undergrowth, but in the more open areas weeds develop to a varying extent. The traditional Jhuming (shifting cultivation) by hill tribes burns the vegetation but the unhurt underground rhizome systems rapidly regenerate into pure bamboo forests covering the wide areas as a fire climax and form bamboo forests as secondary vegetation. Bamboos generally invade the abandoned fields in the forest areas of CHT and Sylhet after Jhuming. 

No natrual bamboo vegetation can be seen in the deciduous sal (Shorea robusta) forests of Madhupur, Tangail, Mymensingh, Gazni and Dinajpur.However, bamboo species such as Melocanna baccifera, Oxytenan thera nigrociliata and Bambusa tulda grow only inside this mixed semi-deciduous to semi-evergreen forest by the side of pure deciduous sal forests of Gazni. Bamboo also does not grow naturally in the mangrove forests of the Sundarbans. Daily inundation, soil and salinity seem to restrict the presence of bamboo in the mangrove forests. In the bamboo growing forests, the common soil colours are yellow, brownish yellow, or light reddish yellow. The soil pH varies between 4.5 and 5.5. The healthy bamboo clumps are found in well-drained, sandy loam to clay loam soil with good amount of organic matter on flat or gentle slopes of the hills. In most of the years, the country experiences strong cyclonic winds but these do not seem to act as limiting factors effecting occurrence of bamboos.

So far seven species of bamboos have been observed to grow naturally in the forests of Bangladesh. Among them Melocanna baccifera is the most common and constitutes about 70% of the total forest bamboos. Other species like Bambusa tulda, Dendrocalamus longispathus, Neohouzeaua dullooa and Oxytenanthera nigrociliata occur sporadically either in association with Melocanna or in isolation forming small patches of pure vegetation. The other two species, i.e. Melocalamus compactiflorous and Dendrocalamus hamiltonii  are localized in limited areas of Chittagong and Sylhet forests, respectively However, in some parts of Kalenga, Adampur, and Tilagarh forests of Sylhet Bambusa polymorpha is also growing naturally as undergrowth in patches.

Bamboo vegetation in villages: Bamboos in the villages are cultivated in the homesteads, usually the clumps are few in number, rarely covering one to two hectares. Majority of the village bamboos are in the plain land of the country and clumps are owned by the families, whereas, the forest bamboos are owned and maintained by the Government. Morphologically forest bamboos are thin walled and comparatively smaller in size to village bamboo species. 

Among the bamboo species cultivated in the different parts of Bangladesh are Bambusa balcooa, B. vulgaris, B. nutans, B. tulda and B. longispiculata. In ranking, B. balcooa and B. vulgaris are the highest priority village grown bamboo species. The former being more common (70-80%) in the northern and western districts whereas the latter is frequently cultivated in the south and eastern part of Bangladesh. B. balcooa has been naturally distributed in Assam, lower Bengal (western) and Bihar and extending to Goruckpur. It is likely that this species has been commonly introduced in the long past by man nearing the border districts of Bangladesh from the place of its natural distribution areas in India. It is also seen that B. vulgaris and B. nutans have been cultivated in the homestead located on the hills of Bandarbans, Sitakunda, Chittagong, Cox’s Bazar and Sylhet. These species have been cultivated in the plain land having pH 6-8, and in the hilly soils of pH 4.5-5.5. The other cultivated species are: Bambusa bambos, B. bambos var spinosa, B. glaucescens, B. polymorpha, B. vulgaris var. striata, Cephalostachyum pergracile, Dendrocalamus giganteus, D. strictus, Gigantochloa apus, Thyrsostachys oliveri and T. siamensis. In some places Dendrocalamus membranaceus and a few unidentified Bambusa and Dendrocalamus species are also cultivated sporadically.

Background: Bangladesh has a great variety of natural resources of bamboo, which are vital to the continuing development of the country’s economy, especially in the rural sector. The current demand estimate is 706 million bamboo culms per year, while the need by the year 2013 will be about  900 million culms (Banik 1992). This shortfall will alarmingly increase by the year 2000 due to the large scale death of Melocanna baccifira, a major forest bamboo species, due to gregarious flowering. Village sources supply about 528 million pieces (80%) and, forest supply 128 million (20%) only Forest bamboo growing area is decreasing on average by two percent annually due to overexploitation, poor maintenance and low yield. Present accelerated rate of deforestation from the combined effects of clear felling, land encroachment, forest fires, logging and fuelwood collection have been alarmingly eroding the forest genetic resources of trees including bamboos. Increasing landlessness, the tremendous land fragmentation, and land use conflicts, erode the forest resources of the country. Pressure exists both on forest reserves and on homestead forests resulting in unsustainable exploitation levels. Therefore, there is an urgent need to conserve the different genetic resources of bamboos in their natural habitats (in situ) and in (ex situ) conservation plots. 

In situ conservation: It has been estimated that there exists more than 1.5 million ha of natural bamboo vegetation in Bangladesh (Banik 1994). Due to different biotic interferences and slash burning the underground rhizome system and the habitat condition of the bamboo forests are destroyed. However, bamboos are seldom harvested from the steep slopes or inaccessible areas in the forest. It has been estimated that only about 10-20 percent of bamboo area is accessible and as a result the resources of the steep slopes and inaccessible areas remain untapped. Labourers are always tempted to harvest bamboos from the easily accessible areas, usually from the banks of perennial streams (chara). Therefore, bamboos are over exploited in these accessible areas. Overexploitation causes a gradual degeneration in health and sizes of the bamboos. In the past, no systematic action was taken in Bangladesh for in situ conservation of the genetic resources of different bamboo species. In situ conservation methods are those which seek to maintain self-perpetuating populations in natural ecosystems and their natural habitat. In 1993, the draft Forestry Master Plan (FMP) of Bangladesh on bamboo was prepared with emphasis on in situ conservation of bamboo stands in the natural ecosystem with following recommendations:

In situ conservation plots and genebanks of different species should be established in their natural habitat. Some specific bamboo rich natural forests will be declared as reserved bamboo  sanctuaries. The key elements of protecting such reserve areas is to recognize two zones - "buffer zones" and "core areas". A buffer zone comprising an area immediately outside the reserved areas to be jointly managed by the local people and Forest Department. The people of the adjacent villages will manage and use the buffer zone for their own needs. The buffer zone will be developed to improve the effectiveness of the protected areas or "core areas". The permanent linear sample plot (PSP) not less than 50x200 m will be established inside the "core areas" of different bamboo vegetation. Depending on the area and extent of vegetation the size and number of PSP may be determined. These plots are to be laid out in such a way that maximum number of species and topographic variations are included. The plots need protection from fire and any illicit felling. The felling operations in the plots will also be carried out on a 3-4 year cycle for silvicultural management.

In the next five year plan the Government is going to implement the recommendation made in the Forest Master Plan.

However, when bamboos are felled they again regenerate from their underground rhizome system. So irrespective of regular cutting, bamboo plants remain alive and perpetuate in the natural ecosystem. The plants (clumps) only die after long interval due to flowering. So, except in extreme cases, the natural genetic material does not always degenerate. New populations are established through natural regeneration from seeds with greater genetic variability.

Community based conservation: In some areas farmers or local community have been conserving specific bamboo species and different germplasm for a very long time. In some areas the species are exotic and had acclimatized in the area after introduction by the local people. The so called community conservation sites in Bangladesh are described below: 

1. Conservation of indigenous species in natural habitat: A bamboo species, Neohouzeaua dullooa A. Camus is naturally occurring in the moist, well drained and fertile valleys as an undertorey vegetation in the deciduous forests of Sylhet, Chittagong and CHT. The people nearby Patharia Forest Reserve of Sylhet have been using this bamboo for weaving mats and big-sized containers for food grain storage. As the species is very thin walled with shiny  internodes, the mats and different handicrafts made out of this bamboo are attractive and have good market and export value. The long internodes are used for carrying water in the hills, and also for making cake from crushed rice. The cake is prepared by roasting the 6- 9 months old culm internode filled in with newly harvested crushed rice, a special sticky type. At present N. dullooa is considered as a threatened species of Bangladesh (Banik 1994). Due to overexploitation and destruction of habitat the availability of the species becomes rare. Therefore, people of that area have been protecting and maintaining some small patches of vegetation of this species for economic and social reasons. For similar reasons in Chittagong forest areas a few families located in Nazirhat and Satkania have been maintaining and conserving some patches of this species on the nearby hills. 

Dendrocalamus longispathus Kurz is one of the important indigenous bamboo species mainly used for house construction and roofing by the local people in nearby forest areas. The settled tribal people of the CHT have been using this bamboo for constructing roofs and some agricultural implements. Due to the scarcity of the species, some individual farmers have been cultivating and maintaining a number of clumps in the nearby natural habitat. Such community based conservation of D. longispathus can be seen in Rangamati, Bandarban and Ruma areas of CHT.

Dendrocalamus hamiltonii Nees has been reported to grow naturally in the Forest Reserves of Sylhet and Sitakunda Hills (Gamble 1896). At present it can rarely be seen inside the reserve forests due to over exploitation, burning, and destruction of habitat. The species naturally occurs in the moist places along the streams and in valleys, and is only found in the protected areas of tea gardens. The gardens are located inside the forest areas and properly maintained. The natural habitat condition required for the species is thus maintained. Labourers and local tribes (Khasia) have been maintaining the natural patches of the species and harvesting the culms for construction on sustainable basis. 

2. Localized conservation of a biotyne of Bambusa vulgaris Schrad.: A distinct biotype of Bambusa  vulgaris has been cultivated at the Cox’s Bazar and southern part of Chittagong. This biotype is short and bushy in comparison to that of common tall biotype. The short and bushy types have comparatively solid culms that branch throughout and 7-15 m tall with 4-7 cm in diameter. A few auxiliary thorny branches are present on the mid to basal-culm portion. Culms are rarely infected with blight disease. Locally the bamboo is known as "Kanta Bizzya Bans". The southern part of Chittagong and Cox’s Bazar areas frequently experience cyclone and tidal bore. To minimize the adverse effects on bamboos, the short bushy type of B. vlrlgaris has been cultivated. 
3. Localized conservation of a biotype of Bambusa balcooa Roxb.: It is a large thick-walled bamboo with strong branching, and has thorn-like branchlets lower down the culms. The species has been very much widely cultivated in the north-east, north west and central part of Bangladesh. It is also cultivated in north western part of Sylhet and northern villages of Mymensingh. They are very tall with heavy, strong culms with thick walls, sometimes solid at the base. Culm nodes are prominently raised, locally called shil-borua (meaning solid and heavy). The species is generally susceptible to the blight diseases while in these areas it is found to be somewhat resistant.
4. Temple - based conservation of Dendrocalamus giganteus Munro: There is a small Buddhist population in Bangladesh. Most of the Buddhist community are hill tribal people such as Chakma, Mog and Barua, and reside in the districts of Chittagong, CHT and Cox’s Bazar. There are a number of Buddhist temples located in these areas for the religious activities of the community. It has been observed that majority of the temples have a few clumps of Dendrocalamus gigan teus and, in some cases, Bambusa polymorpka. The community regards them as sacred plants. The materials are used for the construction and repair of the temples and related works. The internodes are mainly used as a container for sacred religious water. Both these two species naturally occurr in Myanmar not in Bangladesh. In the unknown past, these species might have been carried by man to the bordering districts (CHT, Cox’s Bazar, and Chittagong) of Bangladesh and since then conserved and maintained in the temple areas. 
5. Localized conservation of Thyrsostachys oliveri Gamble: About 50 families of some Burmese and Portugese mixed community have been residing in a small locality known as Diang, approximately one square kilometer in the port area of Chittagong since long Most of the families have been cultivating a few clumps of Tkyrsostackys oliveri in their homesteads. This species naturally occurs in the northern part of Myanmar. It was learnt from the people of the locality that about 200 years ago pioneer members of the community migrated from Myanmar and brought along some propagules of T. oliveri to Chittagong. The local people cultivate and conserve this species in their homesteads and use the bamboo specifically as punt pole for rowing country boat. Majority of the farmers in the areas of Sylhet-Comilla, bordering Indian state of Tripura, have been cultivating Thyrsostackys oliveri in their homesteads. The villages of Akhaura, Sathchari, Sarail, Taliapara, etc., are the only localities where the species is mainly cultivated and conserved. The species is locally called Rupai, meaning silvery, probably due to the presence of whitish tinge on the young culms. The people of this area use this bamboo mainly as punt poles and fishing rods. This large handsome species is also planted along the boundary of households as decorative fence. It might have been introduced from the northern part of Myanmar travelling through the Indian States of Mizoram, Nagaland and Tripura to Bangladesh border area. Similarly the species has been cultivated also in some homesteads of village Bhaluka in the district of Mymensingh by local farmers.

Natural and cultivated stands of bamboo often are threatened due to the uncontrolled human interference resulting genetic erosion. Therefore, it was felt necessary to centralize and conserve the different bamboo species and individuals for conducting studies on various aspects of biology. Efforts were made to collect propagules of bamboo clumps in different parts of the country. The collection and centralization of the species and their variants were started since 1972-73 at the campus of Bangladesh Forest Research Institute (BFRI), Chittagong. 

1. Central Bambusetum of BFRI, Chittagong

In the Bangladesh Forest Research Institute (BFRI) campus the bamboo arboretum or the Bambusetum occupies the west-east slope with hills on the north, south and west with a valley in between. The lower slope is towards the east of the valley. The total land area of the bambusetum is approximately 1.0 ha. 

Purpose of bambusetum: The BFRI bambusetum aims to maintain different bamboo species so that one can observe and identify the species. Besides rare, vulnerable and near extinct species threatened by drastic demographic changes in the country are gathered for further study. It also serves as an acclimatization area for newly-introduced exotic bamboo species. Once the species have adapted they will be propagated for elaborate multi-site field trials. 

Site conditions: Eroded, acidic, loams overlay the unconsolidated sedimentary rocks on steep slopes. Hill summits have an Aridic or Ustic (biologically dry for more than 90 consecutive days) soil moisture regime. Soils of the middle and lower slopes are deep. Soil moisture regime varies from Udic (biologically not dry for more than 90 consecutive days) to Ustic based on steepness of the slope (Hassan et al. 1988). According to Hassan et al. (1988) Oxic Dystropepts (brown forest soils) occur on the steep slopes (> 30%), Typic Tropudults (yellow-brown forest soils) occur on the middle and lower slopes and Dystric Tropaquepts (low humic clay soils) occur in the imperfectly drained valley, where the soils are coarse, loamy, acidic (pH around 5.5) having an Udic soil moisture regime. The land of the bambusetum is under the influence of tropical monsoon climate having a range of annual air temperature l0-35.C, soil temperature 22-29°C at 50-200 cm depth, and total annual rainfall 2500 mm-3000 mm. Rainfall is high during the last part of May to August and dry months are mostly from November to March. 

Maintenance: In the bambusetum different bamboo species have been planted in several lines since 1973-74. Culms produced in the clumps of each species are marked every year by different colour paints on the internodes to recognize the year of emergence.  So far 36 species of bamboos of 9 genera have been collected from different localities of Bangladesh (Table 1) and two from Thailand (line 49, 49A and 60, 60A, 60B). Bambusa bambos collected from different part of Bangladesh including one seed source from Kanchanburi, Thailand. One monopodial species Phyllostachys pubescens was collected from Zhajiang province of People’s Republic of China. Seeds of the species were collected in 1974 and seedlings were raised immediately and planted. All the species have been centralized serially in lines inside the bambusetum (Table 1). Among them are seven species of Bambusa (line/clump number: 04/ 1-2,17/l-10,18A/l, 18B/l-7,25/1-79,26/13- 14,56/l-3), one species of Dendrocalamus (line 26/4, 8-12), and one species of Gigantochloa that could not be identified. Species have been identified mostly by consulting Camus (1913) and Gamble (1896) and the nomenclature cited by Gamble has been followed. In Table 1 the species have been arranged alphabetically along with local names, line/clump numbers, planting year, locality/source of collection, and nature of propagules planted. The planted propagules are of different type. Some are offset (off), part-clump (PC), branch cutting (Bc), seed (Sd), and seedling (Sdl). In two cases (Bambtrsa bambos, Line no. 16-E/1-11 and Dendrocalamus brandisii line no. 60-B/1-5) tissue culture (Tc) plantlets have been planted. These plantlets were developed in BFRI tissue culture laboratory Each species has been planted in one or more lines. Each of these lines comprises the propagules collected from different localities and sources. Many species like B.tulda, B.polynzorpha, Bmlgaris and D.longispathus, O.nigrocilia ta have been exhibiting phenotypic variations in vegetative characteristics like culm colour, length of the culm sheath, branching pattern, and clump nature (congested/open), etc. Differences in flowering duration among the clumps of D.longispathtrs are being noted. The clumps grown from seed of D.longispathus collected from the forests have shown morphological characters that are different from those normally found in this species. Two such variants are growing in the arboretum and have been named D. longispathtls var dholai (Cl No. 36) and D.longispathzrs var koila (Cl No. 26). They represent less than 0.2% of the entire population (Hasan 1979).  The bambusetum is carefully maintained as a botanic garden: a) Only guided visits are allowed. b) Any activity (such as earthcutting, playing, picnic etc.) leading to the disturbance of bamboo clumps are strictly prohibited. c) Litter (leaves, twigs, culm sheath etc.) collection is not allowed. d) Felling of culm is not allowed. Occasional dead culms are harvested as sanitary felling. e) Weeding and maintenance operations, such as, addition of soil to the clump bases, clearing and cleaning of rotten bamboo shoots and twigs, etc. have been carried out annually and f) Smoking is strictly prohibited inside the bambusetum. 

2. National Botanical Garden, Mirpur, Dhaka

The National Botanical Garden was initially established in the year 1962 and in 1968 a detailed Master Plan was prepared for the garden. The garden has been established at Mirpur area about 30 km north of Central Dhaka city, the capital of Bangladesh on about 85 ha of land. The ground is more or less flat with slight reddish brown to ash colour soil. The garden mainly contains different tree species and flowering plants. The centralization of bamboo species has been started in the year 1974. Till today 20 species under eight genera have been planted on about 0.4 ha land (Table 2). The detailed information regarding the source of material is not properly documented, and as a result the origin and source localities, in most cases, are not known. However, the approach of collection was more of park oriented than the scientific conservation of the species. 

3. The Balda Garden, Dhaka

Production of seeds: Though there are no in situ conservation areas in the country, yet the natural bamboo vegetation can be utilized as seed production areas depending on the incidence of flowering. As for example, Melocanna baccifera started flowering in the year 1985 at the forests Khagrachari area of Chittagong Hill Tract (CHT) and also in some part of Chittagong. Since then the species has been continuously producing seeds every year in every locality and likely to continue Ieast up to the year 2000 AD. From the past records it appears that the species is also likely start seeding in the forests of Sylhet and Cox’s Bazar any time within the year 2000 and continues for 14-15 years. So the availability of seeds from the forests of Sylhet and Cox’s Bazar can also be expected in the near future in addition to the present seed sources of CHT and Chittagong.

Since 1972 explorations have been made in different parts of forests and villages to locate and identify any seeding clump(s) of one or more bamboo species. Information on flowering, the locality where clumps seeded and the seed yield are being recorded in each case. Flowering individuals have been designated as "flowering genotypes" under each species. The seeds/wild seedlings/other propagules have been collected from the flowering mother(s) and marked separately with source locality, year of seeding and type of propagules. All the clumps raised from each flowering genotype of a bamboo species have been maintained and planted separately in line(s) according to the specific seeding year. For each flowering genotype separate line number has been used (Table 3). Out of the total 36 bamboo species collected in the ex situ plots of Central Bambusetum, a total of 63 "flowering genotypes" have been centralized under 14 different species. The total number of flowering genotypes, collected in each species is given below. Among the 14 bamboo species D. brandisii and T. siamensis are of exotic origin (Table 3). Seeds of B. bambos were also collected from Thailand during 1991 and seedlings raised from this source are planted in line No. 16-E. A number of plantlets were  developed through in vitro culture of seeds collected from same Thailand source and these were planted in line No. 16-F. 

Bambusa bam bos 7

B. bambos var. spinosa 3

B. glaucescens 1

B. longispiculata 3

B. nutans 1

B. polymorpha 1

B. tulda 13

Dendrocalamus brandisii 2 

D. longispa thus 9

D. strictus 3

Melocalamus compactiflorus 1

Melocanna baccifera 16

Oxytenan thera nigrociliata 1

Thyrsostachys siamensis 2

14 species 63 genotypes

The estimated time to sexual maturity of each species has been sourced from literature. All the individual clumps in each flowering genotype are likely to maintain the same interseeding period as described for the species. In each species more than one genotype has been collected and centralized. The expected future seeding year for all individuals planted in a line has been calculated and shown in the Table 3, for example, in B. bambos the estimated interval for flowering period is 30 5 years. Seven flowering genotypes have been collected in this species. The dates in which the seedlings were raised for each of the genotypes are recorded. After 30 5 years all the plants of each genotype are likely to flower again. Thus B. Bambos raised in 1976 is expected to flower in the year 2011. Accordingly the expected flowering period for each of these 7 genotypes have been calculated and it can be seen that during the year 2011 to 2015 B. bambos is likely to produce seeds on more than six occasions (Table 3). Accordingly in all the 14 species, where the estimated time to attain sexual maturity is known, the expected dates for seed production have been calculated. In the next flowering period, these genotypes are likely to flower one by one and also in between the normal gregarious flowering period. It is apparent that with the beginning of next century, seeds of these bamboo species will be available almost every year or more frequently.  

Clonal materials: Clonal materials i.e., offsets, culm cuttings, branch cuttings etc. can be raised from most of the bamboo species planted in the central bambusetum of BFRI. The selected species and or clump will be multiplied and separately planted in a clonal garden. According to needs the ortet clumps will be used for raising the reproductive materials with any known technique of propagation. 

Recipients/beneficiaries of these repro-ductive materials: The increase in bamboo production mostly means the improvement of bamboo groves and farms in the villages and also partly in the government owned national forests through raising large scale plantation of selected species and clones. The main beneficiaries are the rural poor. This will offer socio-economic benefits to the villagers through improving the bamboo resource base for steady supply of housing materials, agricultural implements, raw materials for handicrafts, cottage and pulp and paper industries at cheap rate. This will also generate employment in harvesting and in cottage, pulp and paper industries. The Forestry Master Plan of 1992- 93 of Bangladesh has information from farmers on the question of planting bamboo. A vast majority (88%) of the farmers were concerned about the rapid loss of bamboos in the villages, about 79% wanted to plant more bamboos. Women favoured bamboo planting slightly more than men. 

Annual Production of planting materials from the in situ and ex situ conservation areas: Melocanna baccifera, the major natural bamboo species of Bangladesh, has been producing seeds since 1985 and likely to continue for next ten years. The clumps of M. baccifera growing in the "buffer" and "core" zones proposed in situ conservation areas are also likely to flower and seed within this time. Each of the "core" area includes about 100 ha of natural bamboo vegetation, of which M. baccifera clumps usually occupy about 80-95% land.On the average,200 full grown clumps of M. baccifera generally cover one hectare of land, so about l700~19000 clumps will be availablein a "core" zone of in situ conservation area. Each of these clumps can produce at least 300 viable seeds, so 4-5 million seeds or seedlings can be collected or produced from each of the 100 ha ‘core’ zones of in situ conservation areas. 

In the two major ex situ bamboo conservation areas, one at BFRI and other at Dhaka Botanical Garden, a number of exotic species and  phenotypically superior indigenous species have been centralized. From the above mentioned clonal garden, the selected ortet clumps will be utilized for producing vegetative propagules. Initially up to 3 years a limited number of branch cuttings will be collected from the clonal gardens and gradually the capacity can be increased with the growth and development of ortet clumps and the availability of propagation nursery facilities. From a full-grown adult clump of B. vulgaris and B. balcooa about 200 viable vegetative propagules can be produced, therefore 500 ortet clumps are necessary for raising 0.1 million propagules. With the 5m x 5m spacing, 400 clumps can be planted in one hectare of land. To produce 1.0 million vegetative propagules 5000 ortet clumps are required therefore the size of the clonal garden would need to be about 15 ha.

Distribution of planting; materials to the users: Planting seedlings and branch cuttings is a completely new technology to the planters, farmers and foresters of Bangladesh. Therefore, regular training programmes and extension activities have been started by BFRI. Training has been found to be best conducted in two tiers, one for the trainers and other for field level workers. The trainees are usually, drawn from a wide range of forestry personnel, from managers to field workers, belonging to the Bangladesh Forest Department, development agencies, tea gardens, and NGOs. Individual farmers and other interested people are also given training. At least a five days programme is repeated initially over a six month period for a batch 25-30 trainees. In addition, audiovisual programmes explaining the steps of planting stock production, plantation establishment and silvicultural activities are used to acquaint the farmers with the scientific technique of bamboo cultivation 

Since 1990, Bangladesh Forest Research Institute has been producing branch cuttings and seedlings of bamboos in the Silviculture Genetic Division’s nursery and distributing these to the Forest Department, NGOs, tea gardens, and different private individuals. At present the bamboo propagules are no longer distributed free of cost. And the Government of Bangladesh has fixed the price of a bamboo branch cuttings at taka 4.00 only equivalent to US$ 0.1 (Bangladesh Gazette, July 6,1995, Ministry of Environment and Forests, Section-5, Page 241-244). Every year, from April to September the propagules are distributed. Information on such as name of the recipient/  organization, number and type of propagules, species name, site of planting, purpose of planting, and date of receipt are recorded to follow up in future. BFRI, at the same time, also started distributing planting stocks free of cost to the farmers in the villages of Patiya, Keochia, Sitakunda, Charandip, Ichachara, Satkania and Chunati of Chittagong district and Kamalganj of Sylhet district. Target farmers have been selected with the help of local school teachers and community leaders. All the necessary technolo-gical guidance and supports have been provided by BFRI. There are 96 Forest Extension Nurseries located in 20 major districts of Bangladesh. The seedlings and vegetative propagules are also being raised in some of these nurseries for distribution to the village people. In future all these nurseries will be utilized for raising the required number of planting stocks of bamboos.

A documentation system for the central Bambusetum of BFRI is in place. It includes all the information related to the identity of the species, source of materials, year plantation established, line number where planted, types of planting materials (seeds/seedlings/wild seedlings/ offsets/part clumps/prerooted and prerhizomed branch cutting/ layered etc.), and their growth and flowering behaviour. Records have been maintained for each clump. Data on the growth (number of culms emerged per clump, height and diameter of culms, clump expansion) are recorded every year for each line of planted bamboo species. Any interesting details including flowering and seeding incidence with date, natural regeneration, any predation etc., for a relevant clump are also being recorded and reported in the journal.

Practices for production of planting materials for research, pilot trials, and plantation programmes

Research: Investigations on the propagation of different bamboo species of the community was started at BFRI at the beginning of 1970. In 1980, financial support of International Development Research Centre (IDRC), was received and research continued on the development of efficient and cheap techniques of propagation. The study shows that in general, no one method of vegetative propagation of bamboos is applicable and effective for all the species. It appears that there is an optimum age for rooting in each type of propagating material (rhizome, offset, culm segment, prerooted and prerhizomed branches). 

No such system has been followed for the conservation or pilot plantation in the country. However, the plantation journals are being maintained by the Forest Department both for raising the enrichment plantation of bamboo species in their natural habitat and also for pilot plantation on any suitable sites. In the plantation journals the following general information about plantation are recorded. 

Most of the thick walled species like B. balcooa, B. vulgaris, B. polymorpha, D. gigan teus, D.longispa thus, B. nutans, B. longispiculata, B. tulda etc., are amenable to vegetative propagation techniques. Thin walled species like Melocanna baccifera, Oxytenanthera nigrociliata and Neohouzeaua dullooa are difficult to propagate by any of the conventional vegetative propagation method. In these thin walled species part-clump planting method has been found suitable. 

Pilot trials and plantation programmes: During 1978, BFRI raised a four hectare pilot plantation of Bambusa tulda and Dendrocalamus longispathus by planting seedlings in the Keochia Field Research Station. At the same time the Institute also raised demonstration plantations of these two species in the Chittagong Forest Division (2.5 ha) and the Pulpwood Plantation Division (2.0 ha). These three plantations were the first bamboo plantation programmes in the country Subsequently, in the year 1985 a ten hectare plantation of B. polymorpha was raised by planting seedlings in Keochia Station. These planting stocks were raised from seeds collected from the flowering clumps of B. polymorpha which were naturally growing in Sylhet. With the generation of prerooted and prerhizomed branch cutting technology established during 1982-1990, BFRI also raised some more demonstration plantations in the Field Stations. Simultaneously in the forests of Chittagong, Ramgarh/Dantmara, Bandarban, Cox’s Bazar, and Sylhet several patches of plantations of B. vulgaris and B. balcooa were raised with branch cuttings. The vegetative propagules were raised and supplied by BFRI and the plantations were raised by Forest Department. With the success of these plantations, field foresters developed confidence regarding the branch cutting technology instead of conventional offset/rhizome methods. In view of the trend of increasing demand and price of bamboo, the Forest Department started some pilot plantations in Sylhet, Chittagong, Cox’s Bazar, Tangail, Mymensingh, and Dhaka Forest Division during 1988-90. During that period about 230 ha plantations of B. vulgaris and B. balcooa were raised with offsets and branch cuttings. Anumber of pilot plantations were also established from seeds/ seedlings of M. baccifera and B. bambos.

In the next five year plan 1991-95, Forest Department raised 650 ha pilot plantations of bamboos in the above mentioned six forest divisions. Almost in all the areas, plantations were raised with branch cuttings, and some with seeds  and offsets. Besides, the programme also provided money to raise 100000 cuttings/seedlings of bamboos for distribution to the villagers. Plantations were raised on the small hills during premonsoon to monsoon (April-August) of the year.The lower slopes and valleys were selected for the plantations of cuttings of B.vulgaris and B. balcooa, while the seeds and seedlings of M. baccifera were planted on the upper slopes and tops. Pits of 30 cm 3 were dug at 5m x 5m spacing. The big size pits were also used in case of offset planting. In a hectare, 400 propagules were planted. No clearfelling was made at the time of plantation establishment. Three weedings and vine cuttings were done in the first year, and two in the second year. Necessary mulching around the planted seedlings was provided after soil work, before the onset of the dry season. Both the homestead and marginal land on-farm bamboo plantations were raised with the participation of local farmers. These plantations, now-a-days, act as on-farm demonstration plots for the farmers and private bamboo planters. 

The natural vegetation of bamboos in the forests served as in situ conservation stands. Bamboos in these areas were harvested at 34 years interval using selection felling. Normally, felling started in October and lasted for about 120 days in a season. Felling was purely manual using a sharp tool (bill hook) for cutting 3 year (at forests of Chittagong, CHT and Cox’s Bazar) and 4 year (Sylhet forest) old bamboo stems at about 15-35 cm above the ground level. Extraction work was by employing contractors using hired labourers. Labourers harvested bamboos from the easily accessible areas, usually from the banks of perennial streams. Therefore, bamboos were over exploited in these accessible areas. The over cut causes gradual deterioration in health and in extreme cases degeneration of resources. On the otherhand, bamboos were seldom harvested from the steep slopes or inaccessible areas in the forest, and as a result bamboo clumps in these areas remained undercut (under exploited) with thick clumps. Moreover, on many occasions due to illicit felling and lack of supervision overexploitation of bamboos was common ignoring the harvesting prescriptions which suggested felling after 34 years interval. Therefore, it is likely that a significant amount of bamboo genetic resources were eroding year after year. 

All the bamboo species in the natural stands flowered gregariously and produced seeds. They flowered after a specific period of vegetative phase and then died. After each flowering incidence the ripe seeds fell on the ground and huge number of seedlings appeared on the forest floor to regenerate the new stocks of bamboo vegetation. Occasional weeding, protection from grazing or predation and forest fire were important steps taken for optimum growth and development of seedlings. The new generations with wide genetic bases were protected and conserved through necessary silvicultural management practices. This ensured future sustainable~ainable prodnckion of quality bamboo from the in situ conservation stands. 

Bangladesh is now deficient in bamboo production and the shortfall is likely to increase alarmingly in the future. To meet the increasing demand bamboos in the natural forests are being overexploited and illicitly felled because the public owned resources have been lying unprotected on the hills. As a result the natural habitats of the different bamboo species are being destroyed. On the contrary, the village grown bamboos have ownership and the farmers have been harvesting and utilizing the crops judiciously. So the destruction of bamboo resource and its habitat is comparatively high in the natural forests. Therefore, there is a strong need for increase in the bamboo production through raising plantations both in the forests and villages. The newly raised plantation will gradually meet the increasing demand and thus the pressure on the natural bamboo forests will be minimized. Less disturbance in the natural bamboo vegetation will help to protect the habitat and genetic resources. The natural bamboo vegetation in the remote forest areas are to be protected as ‘core’ in situ conservation plots and surrounding it some new plantations can be raised as "buffer zones." All the commercial harvesting and activities can be confined in the "buffer zone" plantations. 

In many areas of Unclassed State forests (USF) of Chittagong and CHT, the natural bamboo vegetation has been severely damaged due to grazing, forest fire, shifting cultivation and overexploitation. In these areas enrichment plantations of bamboos have to be raised with the participation of local people. This will not only increase the bamboo production but also restore the habitat and minimize the erosion of genetic resources. The present Forestry Master Plan (FMP) of Bangladesh has emphasized the immediate need  of raising bamboo plantations on the different hill forests of the country. The main recommended sites for forest bamboo plantations are: i) Enrichment planting in the depleted bamboo areas; ii) Lower slopes on the banks of streams and canals in USF; and iii) Long rotation sawlog plantations where at least two thinnings have been completed. These areas are present in the old teak plantations. 

The scenario is different in community based in situ conservation. Out of more than 30 bamboo species growing in Bangladesh, about 25 are being cultivated in the villages. The people have been growing bamboos in heir homesteads and marginal lands since long both for their constructional and cultural needs. Once bamboos are planted, they remain alive for a long period of time till flowering. Thus the planted clumps of different bamboo species and biotypes are being maintained by the rural communities. The local community, through their social tradition and experiences, have been using these stands for bamboo production in a sustainable basis. They harvest the crops judiciously keeping attention to the health of the groves. However, the socio-economic condition, end use pattern and marketing opportunities also influence the conservation approach of the communities. Recent increase in price of foodstuffs are compelling the communities to cultivate food crops as an alternative to bamboos. Employment opportunities could contribute to both sustainable bamboo production and conservation of bamboo at natural stands. As regards village bamboo plantations, priority lies with vacant land in homesteads. The FMP village forestry survey reports that farmers prefer planting bamboos on vacant homestead areas to have their ownership right. The next priority is on the canal banks, roadsides and other marginal lands.

In the following section the Annotated Biblio-graphy of Genetic Resources and Conservation of Bamboo of Bangladesh is presented.

Alam, M. K. 1994. Notes on taxonomy, distribution, ecology and conservation of bamboos from Bangladesh. Pp. 32-36 in Bamboo in Asia and The Pacific. Proc. of the 4th Intl. Bamboo Workshop, Chiangmai, Thailand, 27-30, Nov 1991. IDRC, FAO/UNDP:  

A list of bamboos occurring in Bangladesh with their vernacular names and distribution is given. A few taxonomic problems regarding the Bambusa tulda, B. Iongispiculata, B. nufans, B. teres complex and confusion about the identity of ‘kali’ Oxyfenanfhera nigrociliafa Munro are discussed. Brief notes on the distribution of bamboo in Bangladesh and the need for their conservation and present status of conservation are discussed. 

Banik, R. L. 1979. Flowering in baijja bansh (Bambusa vulgaris). Bano Biggyan Patrika, 8(1&2): 90-91:

During 1978-79 seven clumps of Bambusa vulgaris flowered at Faridapara, 10 km apart from the city area of Chittagong. Out of these 7 clumps studied, 5 flowered completely and died within 18 months. The remaining 2 clumps were found to be part-flowering in nature. Thus the species may have two genetical or physiological strains, one is part-flowering and other is complete-flowering. The species did not produce any seeds. The flowering cycle has been estimated from the past flowering records cited in literature. It appears that the estimated flowering cycle of the species is about 8r0rt5 years. 

Banik, R. L. 1986. Observation on special features of flowering in some bamboo species of Bangladesh. Pp. 56-60 in Bamboo production and utilization (T. Higuchi, ed.) Proc. of the Project Group PS. 04., 18th IUFRO World Congress; Lljubljana, Yugoslavia. 

A few clumps of three different species of bamboo, viz., Bambusa arundinacea var spinosa, Bambusa glaucescens, Dendrocalamus longispafhu flowered and finally died at different times during the year from 1977-79 in the bambusetum at the Bangladesh Forest Research Institute, Chittagong. All these species flowered successively with intermediate short non blooming rest periods. Seed production and germination percentage were studied on each of the flushes of all the species. Other special features such as rate of culm emergence before and during flowering period, anthesis time and pollination mechanism were also noted in these species.

Banik, R. L. 1991. Biology and propagation of bamboos of Bangladesh. Ph.D Thesis. University of Dhaka. p 321:

A detailed study on various aspects of biology and propagation of seventeen priority  bamboo species of Bangladesh were carried out. The field identification behaviour, distribution, growth pattern, reproductive biology including flowering cycle and seeding nature, natural regeneration of the species were investigated and reported. The different propagation techniques, including seeds and vegetative methods, have been reported for each of the species. Tissue culture methods for Melocanna baccifera have been developed and reported, for the different bamboo species of indigenous and exotic origin have been collected and conserved in the central bambusetum of Bangladesh Forest Research Institute, Chittagong. In the bambusetum each of the species has been planted in one or more than one line. Each of these lines comprises the propagules collected from different localities and sources.

Banik, R. L. 1992. Bamboo. Forestry Master Plan. Government of Bangladesh, Ministry of Environment and Forests. Asian Development Bank (TANo. 1355- BAN), UNDP/FAO BGD 88/ 025. p 62+(8 Appendices):

The report describes the distribution of naturally growing species and the climate requirements for growth. Distribution of cultivated species in the plain districts appears related to the planters’ choice, utility values of the species and availability of planting materials. The current demand estimate is 706 million bamboo while the need by 2013 will be 900 million. At present, village forests supply 80 percent of the total national supply about 528 million pieces and National forests supply 128 million. Forest bamboo growing area is decreasing on average by two percent annually. About 10-20 percent of the bamboo area is inaccessible and as a result resources of this area remain untapped. Excepting harvesting, management practices are not carried out properly to maintain the bamboo forests. Meanwhile, management prescription for the village bamboos does not exist. Plantation techniques are discussed fully and scientific harvesting and other silvicultural practices both for forests and village bamboos are suggested. Emphasis is given on establishing Permanent Sample Plots to monitor the natural bamboo stand. A number of development programs including, resource management, production, and research have been proposed to minimize the supply gap. 

Banik, R. L. 1994. Distribution and ecological status of bamboo forests of Bangladesh. Bangladesh Jour. of For. Sci. 23(2):12-19:  

Seven different bamboo species grow naturally in the forests of Sylhet, Chittagong Hill Tracts, Chittagong and Cox’s Bazar of Bangladesh. Bamboo does not grow naturally in the mangrove and sal (Shorea robusfa) forests. The distribution and ecological conditions of species have been described. The overexploitation, fire and other biotic interferences are reducing the area of natural bamboo forests on an average, by two percent annually. Lack of scientific management, especially large scale death after gregarious flowering is also considered to be an important factor for the shrinking of bamboo area in the forest. Among the naturally grown species, Neohouzeaua dullooa is depleting alarmingly due to the bamboo destruction of their habitat. Therefore, three species have been considered as threatened in Bangladesh.

Banik, R. L. 1994. Diversities, reproductive biology and strategies in germplasm conservation of bamboos. Pp. 1-21, Proceedings of the First Working Group meeting on Genetic Conservation of Bamboos and Rattans (Ramanatha Rao and A.N. Rao, eds.), INBAR-IPGRI, 7-9 Nov.1994. Singapore: 

The present state of knowledge on morphological and reproductive diversities of bamboos were reviewed. Due emphasis was given on the selection breeding for enhancement of the productivity of bamboo through exploration, identification, and selection of useful species/ provenances/clones. Conservation of bamboo germplasm and diversity, both at national and regional levels, were also considered as simultaneous activities. On the basis of habitat identity three Regional Germplasm Centres - one each for the mountainous zone, the mainland and the peninsular zones were proposed. The establishment of the seed stands in the region consisting of "flowering genotypes" of the same species collected from different localities is also recommended to facilitate the production of bamboo seeds.

Banik, R. L. and M. K. Alam, 1987. A note on the flowering of Bambusa balcooa Roxb. Bano Biggyan Patrika 16(1&2):25-29:

Flowering of Bambusa balcooa occurred in Gofargaon and Saidpur of Bangladesh during 1983 and 1985 respectively. In these two areas only a few clumps flowered. The flowering was very sporadic and in isolated clump. The species did not produce any seeds. The estimated flowering cycle is either 95 or 40 ± 5 years.  

Hasan, S. M. 1973. Seeding behaviour of Bangladesh bamboos. Bano Biggyan Patrika. 5(2):21-36: 

Seeding behaviour of various species of bamboos has been reported and recorded from time to time in published works. These have been collected and arranged regionwise and presented for the important species of Bangladesh. The information collected gives indication of some very interesting general trends common to all species which have been briefly described and discussed. The results indicate that although there may be some uncertainties regarding the seeding cycle, other inferences such as seeding periods and seed generations provide explanation for the complicated seeding behaviour, especially on the sporadic nature of seeding of some species. Occurrence of few or many seed generations in each species has significance both for planning future research and establishment of seed production centres. There appears to be scope for reducing the intervals at which some species can be regenerated from seed. In other species, it may be possible to make seeds available every year by establishing special seed production areas which can be done by collecting all seed generations in one place. For such a collection of seed generations and planned research on seed problems international cooperation appears to be essential as the problems and potentialities in bamboo species extend beyond political limits.

Hasan, S. M. 1979. Observation on culms and culm-sheaths of Ora bamboo raised from seeds Bano Biggyan Patrika. 8 (l&2):13-26: 

A study on the vegetative characters of Dendrocalamus longispafhtrs Kurz. raised from seeds, was made. It reveals that great variations exist within the culm-sheaths and other morphological characters of different clumps in this species. Three distinct clump types have been recognized and described. The names of two varieties found have been suggested as Dendrocalamus longispafhus Kurz. var Koila Hasan and var dholai Hasan on the basis of the locality from where the seeds were collected. However, culm-sheath characters can only be used to differentiate the varieties within this species but should not be extended to differentiate one species from another. The importance of progenies raised from seeds is being stressed for the study of the taxonomy and silviculture of bamboos.

The national bamboo programme for Bangladesh has been developed to undertake activities in three major areas- exploration and conservation of genetic resources, genetic improvement through provenance trial, and large scale production of planting stocks. Accordingly three research projects have been proposed in the following sections.

Project Title: 

1. Exploration and Conservation of Bamboo Germplasm in Bagladesh 
2. Species Introduction and Provenance Trials 

 

3. Large Scale Planting Stock Production and Nursery Management:

1. Bamboo Propagation Centres for Raising Branch Cuttings and Seedlings. 
2. Production of Tissue Culture Plantlets. 

Implementing Agency:

 Project 1 

1. Project Title: 

Exploration and Conservation of Bamboo

Germplasm in Bangladesh 

2. Purpose of the Project

• To protect the different priority species and their germplasm from rapid loss of genetic resources. 
• To recognize the diversity within and between populations of given species.
• To obtain replacment for existing commercial clones.  
• To provide parental material for future breeding and improvement works.
• To update taxonomy of bamboos in Bangladesh. 

1. Cost of the projects: Taka: 32.0 (lakh) = US$ 80,000. (Cost estimates were prepared in January 1995) 
2. Duration of the project: 5 (five) years.
3. A summary of the project covering the following aspects: 

a ) Importance of the Proiect: The rapidly increasing population, encroachment of land, and other biotic interferences have markedly reduced the area and quality of the bamboo vegetation of Bangladesh. It was estimated in 1992 that the average annual loss of bamboo forests in Bangladesh was more than 2.0 percent. At the present rate of annual deforestation of bamboo vegetation, the future bamboo areas in the natural forest will decline from 148,880 ha in 1993 to 96,030 ha in the year 2013. As a result, the wild genepool of a number of potentially valuable species are continuously being eroded. The homestead forest areas are also shrinking mainly due to rice cultivation and construction of more houses for providing the food and shelter to the increasing population. Consequently, the genetic materials of cultivated village bamboos are also continuously degenerating. Such situation is having a negative impact on the productivity and quality of bamboos. 

b) Proiect brief: Patterns of genetic diversity is unknown and genecological data of bamboo forests is also fragmentary. Currently there is international concern for exploration, conservation, description and utilization of genetic resources of plants in agriculture and forestry. Therefore, further exploration, identification of different biotypes and their documentation, collection and centralization of bamboo’ germplasm are urgently needed.  Collectiing and conservation of germplasm has the practical function of storing for eventual utilization of the greatest possible amount of variability. For each species of interest the range of variability should be explored and conserved both in in situ and ex situ conditions. So far, more than 30 species have been found in Bangladesh out of which 7 occurr naturally in the semi-evergreen and semi-deciduous forests of CHT, Cox’s Bazar, Sylhet and Northern Mymensingh. Among them muli (Melocanna baccifera) is the most common species and occurs as pure as well as scattered bamboo vegetation in the forests extending over 70 000 ha. Other forest species are mitinga (Bambusa tuIda), orah (Dendrocalamus longispathus), dalu (Neohouzeaua dullooa) and kali (Oxytenan thera nigrocilia ta) occur sporadically either in association with muli bamboo or in isolation forming small patches of pure vegetation. The other two species, lata (Melocalamus compactiflorus) and pecha (Dendrocalamus hamiltonii) are grow only in limited areas of Cox’s Bazar and Sylhet forest, respectively. All these species found in the forests are thin-walled and mainly used for thatching and roofing and other agriculture purpose. N. compactiflorus, N. dullooa and D. hamiltonii are presently regarded as threatened species in Bangladesh. Some taxonomic problems regarding Bambusa tulda-longispiculata- nutans-teres complex are yet to be solved. 

More than 20 thick walled bamboo species are cultivated in villages. Among them bashni, barak (Bambusa vulgaris), barua, baluka (B. balcooa); talla (B. longispiculata); mal, makal (B. nutans); kanta (B. bambos syn. B. arundinacea); farua, bethua (B. polymorpha); and bhudum (Dendrocalamus giganteus) are the most common and used mainly for construction work. Bangladesh being part of the subtropics has only clump forming bamboos. No temperate non-clump forming bamboos are present in the country. Although a general taxonomic information of most of the bamboo species of the country exists, much remains to be done.

c) The Proiect comnonents and activities: i) Exploration,field visits to recognize the diversity within the species ii) Collecting of herbaria samples, their mounting and documentation. iii) Imminent loss of valuable genetic resources of bamboos of Bangladesh can be mitigated by either or both in situ and ex situ conservation. It is becoming increasingly  difficult to protect the species in in situ condition and even in some occasions in ex situ plots. 

In situ conservation of wild stands of different bamboo species in natural ecosystem is required to preserve the interspecific and intraspecific genetic variability. Three sets of management objectives, namely ecological, economic and social are to be recognized in in situ conservation. Therefore, the concept is multidisciplinary and will be dealt accordingly 

The local tribal people and bamboo extraction contractors (locally known as Bans Mahaldar) who are responsible for much of the biotic pressure on the bamboo forests, and also the local forest manager (Divisional Forest Officer) will be involved in determination of the in situ conservation sites. All the agents will also be involved in planning, management and protection of the plots. The local people, particularly those long settled or indigenous to the area will be involved mainly for the local knowledge in taxonomic (parataxonomists), ecological and flowering cycle studies. The older people will be consulted for the year of last flowering, seeding, its intensity and effect on the regeneration. 

In collaboration with the Forest Department, 50 x 500 m Permanent Sample Plots (PSP) will be established in two different bamboo stands of Sylhet forest for monitoring the overall health of the clumps, culm production, flowering status, seed formation, natural regeneration etc. Depending on the area and extent of vegetation, the size and number of PSP will be determined. These plots will be laid out in such way that maximum number of species and topographic variations are included. The plots need protection from fire, grazing and any illicit felling. The fire lines will be made along the boundary lines of the plots. A number of concrete pillars will be erected at the boundaries of the plots. As mentioned earlier, farmers or local communities in different parts of Bangladesh have been conserving and maintaining. some genetic resources of bamboo species. Data on species identity, source of collection, uses and mode of maintenance of such community based conservation will be studied. The following activities in relation to such conservation will be undertaken to motivate the communities: 

Provision of planting materials, including free or low cost transport during the initial establishment period; ii. Provision of tools, farm equipment and fertilizer; iii. Food aid, such as the "food for work" approaches to employ the people for maintaining and managing the genetic resources conservation sites. iv. Incentives to women for participating in the maintenance and conservation work. 

Another approach will be to centralize and protect the genetic resources at ex situ conservation plots. In establishing Bambusetum as living collection of bamboo germplasm, emphasis will be given on the following aspects: 

The ex situ conservation plot (about 10 ha) will be selected in Keochia Field Station because of its accessibility, proximity to labour force and to (only 45 km) BFRI headquarters. ii. The land should be more or less fertile, slightly hilly and within flat to 20% slope. iii. The planting site will be protected against damage from man, animals, fire, etc., by making boundary line. v. After collecting samples, single plant offspring or vegetative propagule will be marked and grown separately in the nursery to maintain the identity. v. The collected propagules after one year of nursing will be outplanted in the selected site at 5 m spacing. vi. As several species and genotypes are likely to be involved, the species and genotype-wise line  planting will be made. About 100 individual clumps will be raised for each line, and each line will be labelled. The line number, both scientific and local name of the species along with germplasm accession number will be given on the label. vii. Each clump in the line will also be numbered serially viii. Every year all the cultural practices will be carried out to maintain the bamboo groves. The data on growth, phenological behaviour including information on reproductive biology will be gathered as a routine. 

Bangladesh Forest Research Institute (BFRI) is located in Chittagong (near to the forest areas of Chittagong, CHT and Cox’s Bazar) and has staff with scientific background and experience to execute the project. The in situ conservation plots will be laid in the wild habitat of the naturally growing bamboos of the Sylhet Forests. 

The ex situ conservation plots will be established in the Keochia Field Station about 45 km away from the BFRI headquarter having a good metalled road link. So it will be easy to operate from the headquarters. The Keochia station is moderately hilly and also nearer to the natural bamboo vegetation of Bandarban forests. The community conservation and maintenance activity will be monitored at least in 7 major village communities.

Annual budget breakdown is given in Table 1 and operating costs in Table 2.

a) Procurement schedule of both foreign and local equipment and materials for the project is given in Appendix "A".

b) Yearwise planning of physical works of the project throughout the investment period is given in Table 3.

Financial schedule of work is given in Table 4.

Title: Species Introduction and Provenance Trial 

The differences among most of the traditionally cultivated bamboo species are well documented and their uses are also known, including desired end use. Accordingly, the species will be selected as per need and habitat suitability in Bangladesh. Species introduction and provenance trials proposed for Bangladesh are of the following seven commercially important bamboo species. 

The seeds or any type of vegetative propagules of these species/provenances, as proposed above, will be procured from different local and exotic sources. In this regard FORTIP’s help and assistance will be solicited. 

Obiectives: 1) To select high-yielding species and provenance bamboo species for house-hold and industrial uses and 2) To enrich the genetic material of bamboos in Bangladesh.

Methodologv of trials: The programme involves collecting of planting stocks of the above species from different localities or countries and testing their performance through multilocation field trials. A randomised complete block design with 3 to 5 replications will be used for laying out field experiment. Each plot may contain 25 or 49 number of propagules as per their availability. Each species or provenance is represented only once in each block and the block is replicated 3 to 5 times depending on the availability of propagules. The trials will be made in different agroclimatic zones of Bangladesh. Accordingly the three field stations of BFRI: Keochia (located at southern part of Bangladesh), Lawachara (northern part of Bangladesh) and Charaljani (central part of Bangladesh) are selected.

Spaing is 5 m between the propagules. Planting pit size is 45 cm x 45 cm x 45 cm. Fertilizer (NPX 2:l:l) may be applied mixed with cowdung 15 days before planting. Field planting will be made during May to June. The trial area will have to be protected from grazing, fire and felling and cultural practices will be undertaken as needed.

Data recording: The survival and growth data (period and number of culm emerged, culm length and diameter, clump girth, etc.) have to be collected annually in the month of December to January for each of the planted clump. The collecting of data will be continued at least for three years. The data will be statistically analysed. For the new exotic species e.g. D. asper and G. levis after third year of trial, more samples will be collected for further provenance trial. However, longer field trial may be needed to test the disease resistability of the species. 

The Implementing Institute: Silviculture Genetics Division and Silvicultural Research Division of BFRI, Chittagong. 

The Implementing: Period: Three years.

Total Budget Reauirement: The following amount of money is required for conducting the field trials in the above mentioned 3 field station of BFRI. 

Title: Lar ge Scal e Pl ant i ng St ock Pr oduct i on and Nursery Management:

An improved and cheap technique of bamboo propagation through prerooted and prerhizomed branch cuttings has been developed by the BFRI scientists. This method of propagation is economical and applicable for large scale plantation. It ensures 80-90% success in outplanting. In each bed 700-1000 numbers of such planting materials can be raised. So from a nursery having 100 propagation beds, on an average (800 cuttings x 2 times a year x 100 beds) 0.16 million branch cuttings can be raised each year. Other methods of propagation such as seed germination, seedling management and seedling  multiplication (macroproliferation) have attained success and also attracted attention of planters. Presently Melocanna baccifeua, the major priority bamboo species of Bangladesh is producing seeds and likely to continue atleast upto the year 2000. So every year large number of cuttings and seedlings can be raised for rural plantation and reforestation including enrichment plantation programmes. At the beginning bamboo nurseries will be established in 2 sites namely Charaljani and Keochia field station of BFRI. The main objective of these nurseries is to make bamboo planting stocks available to planters at a cheap price. From these two stations about 0.32 million bamboo cuttings, and 0.3 million seedlings can be produced annually. However, more seedlings may be raised depending on the collection of seeds. In each nursery the following facilities will be provided to produce large number of propagules of bamboos. The detail budget of the proposed programme is given below: 

The facilities of the existing tissue culture laboratory at BFRI campus, Chittagong will be upgraded with wider facilities for mass scale propagule production. With the proposed facilities research on the production of genetically improved bamboo propagules through micropropagation technique will be conducted. The expected expenditure for upgrading the tissue culture laboratory is presented below: 

Bamboos, a versatile group of woody grasses belonging to the subfamily Bambusoideae of the family Poaceae containing more than 1250 species coming under 75 genera are seen unevenly distributed in the various parts of the humid tropical, subtropical and temperate regions of the world. Bamboos are found in very great abundance in the tropical Asia (320 species) and America (179 species) where they form one of the very important natural resources playing a major role in the livelihood of the rural people and in the rural industry. These tall arborescent grasses provide basic necessities of life namely fuel, food, shelter, clothing particularly to the rural poor. They also act as a source of raw material for cottage industry in rural areas and large scale paper and pulp industry. India, Indonesia, Myanmar, Malaya, Japan, the Philippines and New Guinea are some of the important natural bamboo areas of the world. Dependency on bamboos has become more during these decades due to the increase of population especially in the rural areas and therefore, better and sustainable management of the existing bamboo forests coupled with higher productivity are needed. Diversion of bamboos from the rural small industrial sector to the large industries for the manufacture of paper and pulp not only has affected the livelihood of the rural population but also lead to the depletion of the resource in the natural forests due to most unscientific large scale extraction. The increased requirement of the growing rural population also contributed to the depletion/degradation of the bamboo forests especially in areas adjoining villages. 

India has abundant bamboo resources. There are about 24 genera and 138 species. Of these,  3 genera are exotic and the others are indigenous. India possesses 25% of the species found in the world and 43% of species found in Asia and has rich species diversity. Thus, India supports world’s largest reserves of bamboos. Bamboos grow extensively in the Western Ghats and in the North eastern States. There are about 1,00,300 km2 of bamboo forests in India (15.67% of total forest cover) which yield about 4.5 m tons of bamboos per annum (Gaur 1987). Out of the 138 species found in India, only the following 13 species are used commercially in various states (Haque 1984). Bambusa arundinacea, B. balcooa, B. polymorpha, B. tulda, B. vulgaris, B. nutans, Dendrocalamus brandisii, D. hamiltonii, D. strictus, Melocanna baccifera, Ochlandra scriptoria, 0. ebracteata and 0. travancorica. Most of the species are monocarpic with the flowering cycle varying from 1 year to 60 years. According to one assessment (Bahadur and Jain 1981) about 26 species found in India are rare and barring a few intermediate types, these rare/endemic bamboos have been grouped into the following three categories. 

1. Those having restricted distribution but found in large numbers in a few localities or a single locality: Arundinaria manii, A. ralloana, Bambusa atra, Dinochloa maclellandii, Indocalamus walkerianus, Ochlandra beddomei, 0. ebracteata, 0. setigera, 0. sivagiriana, 0. talbotii, Phyllostachys assamica etc.
2. Those having wider distribution but found only in very small numbers: Bambusa arundinacea var gigan tea, Chimonobambusa densifolia, C.jaunsarensis, Dendrocalamus strictus v a r argentea, Oxytenan thera bourdillonii, Phyllostachys mannii, Semiarundinaria pantlingi, Sinobambusa elegans etc. 
3. Those having very restricted geographical distribution in very small numbers: Bambusa mastersii, Cephalostachyum capitatum, Dendrocalamus hookeri var. parishil, D. sahnii, Dendrocalamus strictus, Gigantochloa tekserah, Schizostachyum rogersii etc. 

The first group of plants are not vulnerable due to the larger populations in nature. But the second group is more vulnerable than the 1st group due to small number of individuals in their natural habitat. The third group is highly vulnerable due to very small population over a narrow geographic range. Any strong disturbance to the habitat may lead to the extinction of the third group. Therefore, adequate conservation measures of this group are necessary in the in situ condition. The first two groups also require protection as their existence is also threatened in the course of time. Ex situ conservation measures should be taken up in different locations in order to raise the genepool of the rare, endangered and endemic bamboos. Bamboo group contains some of the tallest woody grasses having multiple uses. These are fast growing and mature early. Thus bamboos are a short rotation forestry crop. The peculiar flowering habit of bamboos often poses problem in the sustained management of this resource. 

Based on the flowering behaviour bamboo has been classified by Brandis (1899) as under 

1. Bamboos flowering every year or nearly so 
2. Bamboos with periodic and gregarious flowering 
3. Bamboos showing irregular flowering behaviour.

The time interval between two successive flowering in a species varies from species to species. In Schizos tachyum elegan tissimum, a Javanese species, Arundinaria wightiana, Bambusa lineata and Ochlandra rheedi, the period is 3 years and in Phyllostachys bambusoides, a Chinese species it is 120 years (Bennett and Gaur 1990). It is believed that Bambusa vulgaris has a cycle of 150 years ( Jansen 1976). There are also species which flower annually Indocalamus wigh tianus, Arundinaria wightiana, Bambusa atra, etc. It is also noticed different flowering cycle for the same species in different localities. Dendrocalamus  strictus flowers in four years interval in Uttar Pradesh, 21 years in Madhya Pradesh and 28 years in Tamil Nadu.

Bamboos show the following different growth forms (Prasad and Gadgi 1981). 

1. Tree forms: This growth form is most important from the commercial point of view. Nearly 45% of bamboos in India show this form and has wide distribution especially in the deciduous forests of the country
2. Shrubbv form: This is shown by about 36% of the Indian bamboo species. Commercially not very important as the tree forms; they do not grow in abundance either and has a restricted distribution. They are found growing on the stream banks and ecotones of the evergreen forests. 
3. Climbing forms: This behaviour is seen in about 19% of the species having very restricted distribution within closed canopy evergreen forests, commercially not much valuable. 

Out of the 22 genera comprising 138 species, 8 genera with 32 species are distributed in the Peninsular India and the others in the North eastern states. The important genera occuring in India, are the following: Arundinaria, Bambusa, Cephalostachyum, Chimonobambusa, Dendrocalamus, Dinochloa, Gigan tochloa, Indocalamus, Melocanna, Neohouzeaua, Ochlandra, Oxytenanthera, Phyllostachys, Pleioblastus, Pseudostachyum, Pseudoxytenanthera, Schizos tach yum, Semiarundinaria, Sinobambusa, Teinostachyum and Thamnocalamus. The three exotic genera are Guadua, since been merged with Bambusa (Bahadur and Jain 1983), Pseudosasa and Thyrsostachys which are occasionally cultivated. 

As far as bamboo species are concerned, the richest Indian State having species diversity is Manipur with 53 species (Sobita Devi and Sharma 1993), next is Arunachal Pradesh, with 50 species. The North eastern States together support about 63 species (Sharma 1992). Both types namely monopodial species with leptomorph rhizomes producing evenly spaced culrns growing in the hilly tracts of the north eastern regions and sympodial species with pachymorph rhizome producing thick discrete culms growing close together, are found mostly in the plains and valleys. Second in species diversity is Peninsular India covering Eastern and the Western Ghats. The species found in the Western Ghats are mainly sympodial. Bamboos are distributed widely in India in almost all the states except in the Kashmir valley (Table 1).  They prefer to grow right from the coastal plains and ascend to an elevation of 3700 m. The other states rich in bamboos are the Andaman and Nicobar Islands and Madhya Pradesh. The most widely distributed and economically very important species are Bambusa bamboos and Dendrocalamus strictus. These species are found growing in the deciduous forests of the southern tip of the Peninsular India and extending upto the lower Himalayan regions. These species, since they are intimately connected with the life of the villagers, tribals, and even middle class peasants, are widely cultivated for various purposes. Among the genera found in India, Pseudoxytenanthera, Dinochloa and Bambusa grow widely in the Andaman and Nicobar Islands. The other important genera having lesser distribution in the Western Ghats and the North eastern region are Arundinaria, Indocalamus, Pseudoxytenanthera and Schizostachyum. The genera having wider distribution in the North-eastern India are Phyllos tachys, Melocanna and Gigantochloa.

The importance of bamboos in the lives of of the people has been recognised as early as 4th century BC by Kautilya in his famous writing Arthasasthra. He considered bamboos as a source of wealth and recognised their medicinal uses. As the centuries gone by bamboos continue to retain their position in the life system of the rural people who, irrespective of their ethnicity and level of culture, depend on the resource for their house construction, income generation, as food and even as medicine. Being a fast growing, light, strong and straight, sufficiently hard but with easy splitting quality and easy to transport bamboos are multipurpose species with a variety of end uses. Young bamboo shoots of some species are used as vegetables and also for pickles. The grains are used as rice. Fruits of Melocanna bambusoides are eaten raw or cooked. A fine silicious matter found in the stem of certain bamboos like (Bambusa arundinacea, Melocanna bam busoides, and Phyllostachys bambusoides) is used in Ayurvedic medicine to treat cough and asthma (Mauria and Arora 1988). Paul (1984) has reportedethnobotanical importance to Bambusa tulda, Dendrocalamus hamiltonii and D. strictus. Bamboos are used in the manufacture of a variety of articles like mats, baskets, fishing rods, rafts, broom handles and curtains. The articles made by the small scale industrial sector are sold in the market directly by the tribals or villagers who make them or by the cooperative societies by procuring from the tribals and villagers and this income generation in the rural sector helps many families to sustain. Other major industry which is fast developing in India is the handicraft industry providing multitude of highly attractive articles. Of late, bamboos are also used in the manufacture of a variety of items. Some of the products made out of bamboos are agricultural implements, anchors, arrows, protection shields, baskets, beds, benches, bunds, boats, bows, bridges, brooms, broom handles, bushes, cots, chairs, cart yokes, combs, chiks for doors and windows, dustpans, dressing tables, fences, fish traps, fishing rods, flutes, furniture, hats, handicraft items, hookah pipes, ladder, lamp shades, masts, musical instruments, pen holders, rafts, sports goods, strings, spears, stands, toys, tool handles, tables, utensils, umbrella handles, walking sticks and many other articles.

The traditional life style of the tribals living inside the forest is very much connected with the bamboos. In many states, the tribal population use the species as vegetables, for pickle making, cooking food in the culms parts, storage of material in internodal portions. Water containers, water pipes, torches, bows, arrows, fencing, fuelwood, house post, roofing, fishing rods, splitting, beating and spreading culms as bed, split portion for making walls with mud or cement plastering especially in the hilly and earthquake prone areas and so on. In the recent years, a few industries have sprung up in some states to use bamboo as a raw material for producing decorative items like bamboo mat plywood, bamboo particle board, bamboo fibre board, bamboo moulded articles, bamboo panelling, etc. These articles are much in demand and some are even exported.

Bamboo are good soil binders due to their peculiar clump formation and fibrous root sstem and hence useful in soil conservation programmes.The leave and split culms for roofing.Bamboos are also preferred in putting up temporary bunds in the coastal zones to prevent ingress of salt water into the cultivated land. Bamboo culms are of much use in the windy areas for giving support to Banana plants and as stands for climbing betel vines, pepper and other cultivated weak stemmed climbing plants. Bamboo sticks or branches are used to put up boundary fences. There are also many other uses for this versitile spesies in the villages. Because of its multiple uses , bamboo are considered as poor man’s timber and they are found to be so, oth in letter and spirit. Thus , bamboos have become an indispensible item among the village people.

With the advent of industrialization and knowledge on the fibre quality of bamboos, many large scale industries have come in various states of India to use bamboos for the manufacture of paper and pulp. Approximately, 2 million tonnes of bamboo are utilized at present for pulp in India leading to the production of nearly 600,000 tonnes of paper pulp every year (Vermah and Bahadur 1980). Now, this use has gone up very high. Though this has helped to meet the ever increasing needs of paper in the country, the villagers who traditionally use this material have been deprived of their availability. Additionally, uncontrolled and unscientific extraction aggravates the problem further. Though bamboos are fast growing and early maturing, their peculiar monocarpic nature and the mass scale dying out after flowering has become a problem to the managers for programming a sustainable management . Added to this, there are the regular annual forest fires which destroy the bamboo areas and cause a high degree of set back. The overgrazing of the bamboo areas by cattle, goats etc., also contributes to the depletion.

The other factors that contribute to depletion are clearancing of forests by many agencies for raising agricultural crops, construction of roads, railway lines, transmission lines, and other development activities. Forest developments aslo cleared many of the forest areas containing bamboo for raising economic plantations of teak, euca;yptus, many other soft wood and timber species for raw material. On one hand, depletion of resource took place and on the other, demand increased both from the village people and industrial sectors so that meeting the demand has become a problem. Only a small percentage of the raw material needs are being met with. The paper and pulp industry sector is consuming very large

quantities of bamboos and the rural people and rural small scale industrial sector are suffering due to shortage of raw materials. Paper sector has also made inroads into the village homesteads and started exploitong bamboos so that private bamboo resources also started dwindling. This situation threatens the life of the people who depend on bamboo for their livelihood. This has led to over-exploitation bamboos from the forest areas degrading the bamboo forests.

In the past, when only rural people used bamboos for various purposes, there was sufficient material available in the forest to satisfy their full needs. With the coming up of the paper and pulp indstries, shortage of raw material is ulargely felt due to the use of large quantity of bamboos many times more than the village and cottage industrial requirements. Now, due to depletion of resources, a situation has arisen that both large scale industrial sector and the small scale village or cottage industrial sector are much short of bamboo raw material. This position automatically leads to a crisis management of bamboo forests by the Forest Departments in order to meet the increasing needs. Thus, 1) diversion of bamboo areas for various developmental purposes as mentional above 2) destruction of areas due to regular annual fires 3) overgrazing of the bamboo forest areas 4) over-exploitation due to unhealthy competition for raw material from the village, large and small scale industries 5) the peculiar monocarpic flowering behaviour of bamboos 6) opening up new vistas for the manufacture of furniture and other items from bamboos 7) increased demand from the rural sector for various house hold purposes 8) shortening the felling cycle for getting more yield 9) clearing of areas for shifting cultivation etc. have lead to genetic erosion of bamboo, especially the commercial species. Hence, the science, planners, and managers are now concerned about bamboo conservation atatus and wish to increase bamboo resource base and production per unit area by developing appropriate scientific methods.

Measures to be taken for conservation and improving productiveity: In order to increase the productivity the following important aspects need attention.

1. To raise bamboo plantations both inside and outside forests in the degraded lands, especially in the bamboo degraded areas.

2. To interplant bamboos in long rotation plantations like teak, etc.

3 . To carry out genetic improvement by selection and breeding for higher productivity.

4 . To establish in situ and ex situ conservation centres/sites and for continued research on bamboos.

5. Production of improved bamboo planting material through macro and micro propagation to meet the increasing requirement of raising of plantations in the different states.

6 . Give appropriate publicity in the rural areas in order to induce people/farmers to plant bamboo in their farm lands and even homesteads for personal use and for increased income.

7 . To develop scientific management practices for sustained growth and supply

8 . To improve the existing soil condition if necessary by giving additional soil and nutrient input for increasing production.

As already stated, the country has 138 species distributed widely in different parts from south to north and north-eastern parts. Of the total species, NE India, covering the states of Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Manipur, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Nagaland, Sikkim, Tripura and West Bengal support about 50% of the genetic resources followed by Peninsular India, covering the Eastern and the Western Ghats support about 23% of the genetic resource (i.e. 32 species under 8 genera). This is followed by North-western India, Indo-Gangetic plains and the Andaman and Nicobar Islands. About 26 species i.e. roughly 19% of the Indian taxa are endemic, rare and threatened.

Of the many genera represented in the country, only two genera namely Bambusa and Dendrocalamus have the over all distribution occuring in all the 5 zones in India. The environmental condition being not similar in all the five regions, the adaptability of these two species is tremendous. It is, therefore, likely that these two species show variation in their properties from one place to the other and these aspects may turn out to be economically very important. Therefore, a study of these two species with wider distribution is very important in increasing the productivity of bamboos.

The destruction of natural forests and degradation of bamboo resources due to various reasons stated earlier definitely result in the depletion of the genetic resource. It is necessary to identify and collect the germplasm of all the bamboo species including the underutilized and unexploited ones so that they can be brought to the identified research centres and evaluated scientifically The promising materials have to be identified and provenance trials have to be conducted in order to identify the best performers to identify appropriate varieties for specific purposes. This kind of work is in a very preliminary stage in this country. Various research programmes have been taken up with the aid of external agencies like IDRC, FORTIP and by the Indian Council of Forestry Research and Education (ICFRE) and State Forest Research Centres and the Forest Departments in many centres of the country This has to be strengthened and developed.

Research/studies on various aspects concerning especially economically important ones are of absolute necessity in order to increase the productivity for meeting the ever increasing needs of the country In order to carry out the studies, en: situ and in situ conservation centres/sites have to be established. Some beginning has been made in this direction a few years ago at different centres in the country.

At present, in situ conservation of bamboos has been attempted mainly inside the wildlife protected areas, and national parks. In many places, even within the protected areas, bamboo resources are subject to extraction as per the local management plans. In situ conservation sites, as such, are yet to be established in the country It is necessary to identify the locations inside and outside the protected areas so as to have sufficient locations to carry out studies. Because of the monocarpic nature of most of the commercially important bamboos, it is necessary to locate different stocks of bamboos of the same species growing in different localities so that the required propagules/seeds are collected and grown in the required localities for sustained harvest. This will help in the availability of bamboos regularly as different stocks flower at different times. In the same manner, locations of different species can be identified and conservation measures taken particularly of the rare and threatened species. These locations can also act as centres for the supply of the particular species of bamboo for conducting species trials as well as establishment of bambusetum.

Ex situ conservation involves establishment of live collections in certain centres for seed collection or other propagules preserved in special storage facilities for future use.

The live collections are now available only in a few centres in the country. Some of the centres are:

1 . Forest Research Institute, Dehra Dun  -37 species

2. Van Vigyan Kendra, Chessa, Arunachal Pradesh - 35 species

3. Arunachal Pradesh Centre Bamboorium, Sinang District. - 31 types

4. Botanical Garden, Punjab University, Chandigarh. - 20 species

5. Kerala Forest Research Institute, Peechi, (Sub-centre at Nilambur) - 21 species

6 .Kerala Forest Research Institute, Peechi, (Sub-centre, Palappilly), Kerala. - 51 species

7. Kerala Forest Research Institute Campus, Peechi, Kerala. - 13 species

8. Tropical Botanical Garden and Research Institute, Palode, Kerala. - 32 species

9. Institute of Forest Genetics & Tree Breeding Coimbatore. - 26 species

10.Forest Department, Begur, Wynaad Division, Kerala. - 12 species

There may be some more centres but the details are not available. Some of these are old trial plots taken up by the Forest Departments under their species trial research programmes. Such trial plots are available under the Kerala Forest Department at Nilambur for species Dendrocalamus longispafhus, Oxyfenanthera monosfigma and at Kulathupuzha for Thyrsosfachys siamensis. Apart from these plots, some germplasm collections are also available as individual plantings at the Divisional Forest Office compounds at Manantoddy, Palghat, Konni in Kerala.

Genetic studies in bamboo improvement were started for the first time in India in 1980 in Arunachal Pradesh. Selection of plus bamboos (entire clump) was carried out with the objective to establish germplasm banks of improved materials and to multiply them for supplying to the villagers. Selection of plus bamboo was done based on phenotypic characters of species like Bambusa balcooa, B. nutans, B. pallida, B. tulda, Dendrocalamus sfricfus and D. hamilfonii (Beniwal and Singh 1988). Under the aeges of All India Coordinated Research Programme on underutilized and under-exploited plants, a beginning has been made at the coordinating centre at Basar in Arunachal Pradesh to collect the available germplasm from Arunachal Pradesh and Meghalaya and evaluate the material through a set of defined descriptions and then identify promising materials for multilocation trials (Mauria and Arora 1988).

Bamboo germplasm studies were taken up under the above research programme by Kochhar et al. (1990) in Siang District (Arunachal Pradesh) due to the prevalence of more than 15 species in this small pocket alone. The comparative population studies on Bambusa fulda, Dendrocalamus hamiltonii and B. pallida at West Siang and North Lakhimpur showed little interspecific and more intraspecific variation for seven clump management and five clump morphological traits in the base population. The authors have also reported that infer se association among these traits showed possibility of improvement through selection for individual traits vis-a-vis single plus bamboos or polymorphs. They also found that the vigour of one year old nodal plants was more than that of seedlings. They had also initiated chemical mutagenesis in B. pallida for plant improvement studies.

Ex situ conservation can also be done through seed banks and rhizome banks. Seed viability being very low in bamboos different techniques of storage are being developed in different research centres like Kerala Forest Research Institute, Peechi to increase the viability of seeds. Seed material collected after gregarious flowering can be stored and used year after year for a longer period. If successful storage technique is developed, the seeds can be used till next flowering. Intermast period being very long, it would be difficult to store large quantities of seeds for mass scale planting till next flowering.

It is possible to collect rhizomes from areas showing different flowering cycles and grow them in selected centres that can act as ex situ conservation centres and help to supply seeds during various periods. Collecting rhizomes and bringing them to one place may be a difficult task as the propagules are bulky and difficult to transport without causing damage. Moreover, survival rates of rhizomes are found to be very low especially when brought from different localities. Establishment of clone banks in different centres will help to obtain materials for multiplication of planting materials by adopting vegetative methods, which can also act as ex situ conservation facility. Identification and availability of suitable clones is a problem in the establishment of clonal banks.

It is necessary to link all the ex situ conservation areas in a network so that flowering of different species in the different localities are monitored for hybridisation purposes for improving yield and quality. More conservation centres may have to be opened up to bring in not only from within the country but also from outside countries like China, Malaysia, Indonesia etc. While bringing in exotics, it is essential to have an idea of the major centres of distribution, the areas having maximum diversity, the dominant species of different regions, the problems posed by some of the exotics in the different countries, etc. (Bennet 1989). The ex situ and in situ conservation centres are at present managed by different agencies with different objectives. It is necessary to bring these conservation centres into representative provenance/landrace stands for continuous collection of seed/planting materials for experimental purposes and also for planting at the regional or national level. Well defined objectives with appropriate guidelines have to be laid out at the national level for the scientificmanagement of conservation centres. Since the conservation is a national requirement necessary funds for the maintenance of these centres have to be provided by the Centre itself.  

A wide spectrum of variability is noticed among the different genera and species of bamboos occuring in the country. Genetic and phenological variability exists in respect of flowering of bamboos and their cytology, variation in chromosome number, pollen grain size, fertility and germination. Variation also exists with respect to morphological and anatomical features. The high degree of variability in different aspects as mentioned above and the economic value and multiple uses make bamboos the most desirable group to carry out genetic improvement.

Not much attention was paid genetic improvement of bamboos in the country and have been attempted only in a very few species. There is a wide gap of knowledge in certain important aspects like physiology and genetics of flowering, cytogenetics, phenology, breeding pattern, hybridisation, mutation and polyploidy. Floral biology and breeding behaviour are well understood only in a few species of bamboos (Venkatesh 1984, Nadgauda et al. 1993 a,b). According to the breeding behaviour, bamboos can be classified into two groups.

i . Species in which male and female reproductive units mature at the same time.

ii. Species showing marked dichogamy.

According to Nadgauda et al. (1993 a,b), there is no self incompatibility in Bamboosa bambos. The authors also state that, though it is not possible to check whether there is incompatibility (because of dichogamy), adelphogamy (sib pollination) is known to be possible. The periodic flowering behaviour in bamboo makes it difficult to obtain flowering in two different species at the same time or in the nearby localities. Due to this reason hybridisation attempts in bamboos are difficult. Therefore, the work is in a preliminary stage.

Pioneering work on bamboo improvement was carried out for the first time in India in Arunachal Pradesh during 1980.Plus culms of bamboo of species like Bambusa balcooa,B.nutans,B, pallida,B.tulda,Dendrocalamus giganteus and D.hamiltonii wee identified.Candidate plus culms of the above specied were selected taking into consideration the main characters like number of clumps, height of culms, thickness of culm, girth of culms, length of internode and disease and pest free culms.

Micropropagation in controlled conditions of laboratory is a popular method of reproduction in bamboos. Standardisation has been done with respect to micropropagation, especially in the most common and widely distributed species like Dendrocalamus strictus and Bambusa arundinacea through somatic embryogenesis from inflorescences and embryos, rhizomes, nodes and leaf sheaths of juvenile plants (Rao and Usha Rao 1990). The apical tissues of the growing region of species like Schizostachyum and Thyrsostachys are found to produce callus in in vitro condition (Dekkers et al. 1987). Explants raised from seedlings through tissue culture are very popular. Seedling explants did not loose their capacity to form shoots and roots even upto 15 subcultures (Nadgir et al. 1984). It is observed that culm formation occured within 30 months of tissue culture raised plants as compared to four years in seed raised plants (Mascarenhas et al. 1989). Saxena (1990) developed in vitro propagation method for Bambusa tulda through shoot proliferation from three week old aseptically grown seedlings. Mass propagation to produce bamboo plantlets by adopting tissue culture methods have been tried in various laboratories and field centres in the country

The concept of tissue culture is born out of the fact that every cell in a plant is capable of regenerating into an entire plant, thus making it possible to regenerate innumerable number of plants from single bud. A number of protocols are published for multiplication of bamboo. All the available protocols were tested and a viable protocol for mass multiplication and transfer to field developed at Plant Biotechnology Division of the Institute of Forest Genetics and Tree Breeding (IFGTB), Coimbatore. Protocols for multiplication have been developed for Dendrocalamus strictus, Bambusa arundinacea, Dendrocalamus asper (edible bamboo), Phyllostachys edulis, Dendrocalamus giganteus and Bambusa polymorpha. The single nodal bud from identified phenotypes or axilary buds from seedlings/young plants are taken as the basic material for culture. The time of collection of bud from the mature culm is critical. They should be collected at the time when the buds just start swelling. When, seedling is used as explant, nodal portion from one month old seedling is preferred for multiplication. The buds are washed thoroughly with running water and sterilised with 0.1% sodium hypochlorite for 5 minutes, washed with sterile distilled water and with 0.1% mercuric chloride for 5 minutes and all traces of the sterilant removed by rinsing with sterile distilled water. In case of nodal explants from mature culms more rigorous sterilisation is advocated. The entire operation is carried out in the laminar flow chamber to maintain aseptic condition. The explants are initiated in Murashige and Skoog medium supplemented with 0.5 mg 1 -l benzyl amino purine. The cultures are maintained at a photoperiod of 12 hrs dark and 12 hrs light with cool flourescent lamps.

Ammonium nitrate 1650.00

Potassium nitrate 1900.00

Calcium chloride 440.00

Magnesium sulfate 370.00

Potassium dihydrogen phosphate 170.00

Potassium iodide 0.83

Boric acid 6.20

Manganese sulfate 22.30

Zinc sulfate 8.60

Sodium molybdate 0.25

Copper sulfate 0.025

Cobalt chloride 0.025

Ferrous sulfate 27.84

Ethylene diamine tetraacetic acid 37.30

Myo-inositol 100.00

Nicotinic acid 0.5

Pyridoxine 0.5

Thiamine HCI 0.1

Glycine 2.0

Sucrose 30,000.0

Benzyl aminopurine 0.5

The above chemicals are weighed accurately and dissolved in 1 litre double distilled water. The pH of the medium was adjusted to 5.0. The medium was then dispensed into covered jars and sterilised in the autoclave for 20 mts at 15 lb pressure. Themedium may need modification depending on the physiological status of mother plants at the time of bud collection. For explants derived from seeds modification is not necessary Within one month of culturing, the buds start producing multiple shoots. Regular subculturing is done every 20-25 days using the same medium. Within 20 days, about 20-30 shoots are produced. These are further subcultured with three shoots per flask.

Many of the shoots on prolonged culture root in the same medium. About 90% of the plants root successfully in MS half strength medium supplemented with 0.1 mg 1 -l Indole Butyric Acid. Microrhizomes are also induced under in vitro condition so that plantlets harden. This also ensures high survival rate when transplanted into polybags. The rooted plants with micro-rhizome are then transferred to a medium containing sand, soil, vermiculite in the ratio of 1:l:l and kept in poly-globule for hardening for a period of two weeks. If required, during this period 0.1% Bavistin is sprayed to avoid fungal attack. Subsequently, the polyglobules are opened and the plantlets kept in shade house for a period of one month and then transferred to the field. While the plantlets are kept in the shade house;Hoagland’s solution is fed to the plants to enable them to rapidly gain height and dry matter. Within a month the hardened plants are transferred to the field.

Mascarenhas, Parasharami and Nadgauda of the National Chemical Laboratory, Pune, through their studies showed that the flowering period can be reduced to a few weeks in the laboratory against the natural flowering cycle of 30 years or more by using special nutrient mixture of minerals, vitamins and sugar together with coconut milk and plant harmones. Such flowering behaviour in many species obtained by different scientists through their experiments has been used for the hybridisation between different species and varieties in laboratories. Hybridization in bamboos is normally difficult due to the monocarpic nature of flowering and also due to the difficulty in getting two desirable parents to flower simultaneously. It becomes difficult to select the parents freely in the natural condition. In India, methods have been standardised to induce flowering of somatic embryos within 8- 10 weeks of culture, making it possible to produce bamboo hybrids (Rao and Usha Rao 1990). Thus, in vitro induction of flowering can serve as a basis for hybridisation between different species and varieties for perennial seed production. Pioneering work in bamboo hybridisation was carried out by Zhang and Chen (1991) in China and succeeded in developing hybrids between Bambusa pervariabilis x Sinocalamus latiflorus (Bambusa textiles) and Sinocalamus beechayanus x S. latiflorus. The hybrids were found to exhibit high propagating ability and high seedling survival rate. Such work can be taken up in India also on economically important species.

Genetic improvement is also possible through selection and development of high yielding varieties and by establishment of provenances and germplasm banks. Cryopreservation of pollen of different species obtained during the mass flowering period will help to use the pollen in times of need for hybridisation purposes in nature as the flowering of various species occur at different intervals. Cryopreservation technique has to be standardised and popularised among scientists so that testing can be made in many places. Transfer of pollen material from one place to another should also be made possible.

Identification of plus culms of high yielding varieties in nature and their multiplication through somatic embryogenesis in the laboratory and inducing flowering of different plus culms and allowing pollination among them will help to produce better quality plants. The wind pollination taking place in nature during the mass seeding leads to high degree of heterozygosity in the seedling population. Careful selection from among such seedlings will give scope for obtaining vigorous genotypes. Such stock can be multiplied through micropropagation and supplied to different centres for multilocational trials. Once hybrid seed production is obtained in vitro, clonal multiplication methods can be successfully used for multiplying the seedlings raised from such seeds. Selection at the seedling stage will be useful in multiplying only the fast growing ones (Kondas et al. 1973) ( Bahadur and Naithani 1976 ) and thus increasing productivity (Venkatesh 1988). 

It may be possible to re-set the internal calender controlling flowering by rejuvenation achieved by somatic embryogenesis (Nadgauda et al. 1993). If successful, it can increase the possibilities for hybridisation in bamboos for evolving new varieties with desirable qualities. Modern technological developments in the fieldof genetic engineering may be helpful in identifying the genes responsible for physiological stability which keeps the culms to remain healthy and green after flowering as in Bambusa atra and thereby making them to continue vegetative growth after flowering. Through this method, it may be possible to improve the quality of species and varieties. Likewise genes responsible for induction of flowering may be identified and used properly to manipulate flowering as needed (Kinhal 1993).

Chemical mutagenesis has been initiated as a part of plant improvement studies in Bambtrsa pallida (Kochhar et al. 1990). Since bamboos continue to play a significant role in the rural economy and also in the big industries, sustained availability has to be ensured. At present, it is difficult due to the peculiar flowering behaviour and mass death after flowering. Modern bio-technological methods like tissue culture, parasexual hybridisation through potoplast fusions, haploid production and genetic engineering hold promising potential in future genetic improvement work (Venkatesh 1992).

Most of the bamboo species are monocarpic and seed production usually takes place only after a very long interval of vegetative growth. The flowering may be sporadic in some areas and generally gregarious producing large quantity of seeds which loose viability within an year. Since it is necessary to make planting material available every year for large scale planting, it becomes necessary to ensure the availability of planting stock year after year. The long intermast period in bamboos makes it difficult to depend upon seeds from the natural stands for yearly afforestation works. One of the methods, as already suggested, is the development of suitable technique to store seeds so that seeds can retain viability for a longer period. Though the experiments to store seeds for a few years proved to be successful in certain species like Bambtrsa arundinacea and Dendrocalamus strictus, it could not be sustained as the germination percentage was found to reduce gradually over time. However, further experiments are required to store seeds for long term without much reduction in the germination percentage. Experiments in this direction are going on at the Kerala Forest Research Institute, Peechi; IFGTB, Coimbatore and a few other centres.

Another method of ensuring sustained supply of seeds is the micropropagation of vigorous seedlings and inducing them to flower and fruit to produce viable seeds. Inflorescence explants containing a panicle of spikelets in the case of Bambusa artrndinacea and Dendrocalamus stricttrs gave rise to several viable inflorescences on subcultures and produced fertile seeds (Nadgauda et al. 1990). It is also found that tissue cultured seedlings on medium supplemented with cytokinin and coconut milk flowered in appreciable numbers after three subcultures. In some experiments it was possible to induce early flowering and produce seeds in three months (Johnson 1990). It may be possible to produce a regular supply of seeds by the tissue culture methods. It is also possible to carry out breeding within such laboratory developed populations and produce hybrid seeds of superior varieties (Joshi 1990). However, seed production in the laboratory will be very limited. Production of large quantities of seeds annually by this method is not practicable as the expenditure may be prohibitive. Streamlining of the entire process will prove beneficial.

The nonavailability of seeds in bamboos annually due to the long intermast period led to various studies for propagating them vegetatively by adopting different methods. Two important methods are macropropagation and micropropagation.

There are many macropropagation methods. They are 1) seedling multiplication by separating the seedling rhizomes or macroproliferation 2) offsets and clump division 3) rhizome cuttings, 4) layering, 5) culm cuttings, 6) branch cuttings, 7) pre-rooted branch cuttings, 8) pre-rhizomed branch cuttings, 9) nodal bud chips (Bennet and Gaur 1990), 10) marcotting, etc. (Rao et aZ. 1992).

Seedling multiplication through separation of seedling rhizomes is possible in most of the species when the seed supply is limited. In the other methods, following are the limiting factors (Nadgauda et al. 1993).

i . The non availability of vegetative propagules in the first few years of the life of plantations raised from seed.

i i .The number of vegetative propagules that can be extracted from a plantation is limited. 

iii. Reduction in the productivity of the mother plantation after the extraction of vegetative propagules.

iv. Most of the vegetative propagules are bulky and difficult to transport and handle.

v. The survival rates of the vegetative propagules are also found to be low.

vi. Reduction in the life of plantation raised by the above propagules due to the possibility of flowering along with the mother plants. The life of the plantation depends upon the age of the parent stock from which the propagules are obtained.

Because of the above limitations and also due to the effect of seasonal variation, environmental conditions, age, plant growth regulators and selection of branch cuttings on rooting of the propagules, etc., large scale plantation cannot be raised by adopting the above methods. Moreover, these methods are also expensive compared to raising a successful plantation from seed stock. But such methods can be used for homestead gardens and to establish small scale plantations.

Simple low cost technology is said to have been developed for macroproliferation upto 16,000 seedlings in Dendrocalamus hamiltonii (Adarsh Kumar et al. 1992) and upto 49,000 seedlings in Bambusa arundinacea (Adarsh Kumar 1993) every year for any desired number of years. It is also reported that the saplings developed through macroproliferation remain small in size due to continuous rhizome separation.

In order to increase the planting stock before transfer to the field, macroproliferation is practised. Four to five months old plants in the nursery developed with the above procedure has good rhizome system. These plantlets in the nursery develop five or six tillers in four to five months period. These tillers are separated along with a small piece of rhizome and roots. These propagules attain the size of field plantable saplings within four months, or they can be further multiplied through macroproliferation. Thus, by this technology, a large number of selected planting stock can be made available. Using this technology one bud can be made to produce three hundred plants in three months which can further be multiplied on a larger scale. Essentially, the approach is same for all the species of bamboo, viz. Dendrocalamus strictus, Bambusa arundinacea, Dendrocalamus asper (edible bamboo), Phyllostachys edulis, Dendrocalamus giganteus and Bambusa polymorpha. Varying the cytokinin concentration and effectively subculturing within a period of 20-25 days would help in continuous production of propagules with high multiplication frequency. The propagule production depends on human resources available for subculturing frequently and space in the tissue culture laboratory and rapidity with which it can be transferred to the field. Several thousands of propagules can be produced by careful planning, and anticipating the limitations. It is advisable to obtain the total planting stock requirement, at least a year in advance and work-back the multiplication strategy. In IFGTB, the tissue culture-raised bamboos have been successfully field planted and the new culms are initiated within four months of field planting. Adequate irrigation immediately after transplantation ensures rapid growth and early development of culms.

Raising of plantation of improved varieties of bamboo is an immediate necessity for producing adequate quantity of raw materials for meeting the ever increasing demand of bamboos. There is immense possibility of improving the productivity in terms of number and size of culms by proper selection and multiplication. Bamboo being a fast growing species genetic improvement whenever available can be safely introduced. Care is necessary to raise plantations of species or varieties in such a manner that flowering at different intervals takes place in the same area in order to ensure sustained seed supply. At present, the planting stock is made available for afforestation of larger areas from the seeds collected from the mass flowering localities. The present techniques of storage of seeds are not good enough to store seeds for a longer duration to cover the intermast period common in bamboos. The viability being very short and as the requirements are annual, it is necessary to adopt cheaper methods developed for vegetative propagation either by macroproliferation or by microproliferation and still improve upon it.

For raising trial plots, or research plots planting stock can be developed from genetically improved or selected stock by using different vegetative propagation methods as the requirement is small. These plots can serve as future reservoirs for supplying improved varieties for better yield.

Adarsh K. 1983. A new technology for mass production of field planting stock of Bambusa arundinacea through macro-proliferation. Pp. 56-60 in Bamboo and Its Uses. Proceedings of the International Symposium on Industrial Use of Bamboo, 7-11 December, 1992. Beijing, China (Zhu Shilin, Li Weidong, Zhang Xinping, Wang Zhongming, eds). Chinese Academy of Forestry and ITTO, Yokohama, Japan

Adarsh K., M. Pal and S. Kumar. 1992. Mass production of field planting stock of Dendro-calamus hamiltonii vegetatively through macro-proliferation. Indian Forester 118(9):638-646.

Bahadur, K.M. and S.S. Jain. 1981. Rare bamboos in India. Indian Journal of Forestry, 4(4):280-286.

Bahadur, K.N. and S.S. Jain. 1983. Rare Bamboos of India. Pp. 165-271 in An Assessment of Threatened plants of India. (S.K. Jain and R.R.Rao, eds). Botanical Survey of India. Howrah, West Bengal.

Bahadur, K.N. and H.B. Naithani. 1976. Range extension of the bamboo Cephalostachyum pergracile Munro. Indian Forester, 102:596-601.

Beniwal, B.S. and N.B. Singh. 1988. Bamboo Improvement works in Arunachal Pradesh. Indian Forester - September. Pp. 549-552.

Bennet, S.S.R. 1989. Pros and cons of exotic bamboos. Pp. 49 in Seminar on Silviculture and Management of bamboos, Dec. 13-15, 1989. Institute of Deciduous Forests, Jabalpur, India.

Bennet, S.S.R. and R.C. Gaur. 1990. Thirty seven bamboos growing in India. Forest Research Institute of India, Dehra Dun, India. 100 p.

Brandis, D. 1899. Biological notes on Indian bamboos. Indian Forester 25 : l-25.

Dekkers, A.J., A.N. Rao. and C.S. Loh. 1987. In vitro callus formation in Bamboos, Schizostachyum and Thyrsostachys species. Pp. 170-174. in Recent Research on Bamboos. Proceedings of the International Workshop, Hangzhou, China (A.N. Rao, G. Dhanarajan and C.B. Sastry, eds.) Chinese Academy of Forestry and IDRC, Canada.  

Gaur, R.C. 1987. Bamboo Research in India. Recent Research in Bamboos. Pp. 26-32 in Proceedings of the International Bamboo Workshop. Hangzhou, China. (A.N. Rao, G. Dhanarajan and C.B. Sastry, eds.) Chinese Academy of forestry and IDRC, Canada.

Haque, M.S. 1984. Bamboo -the tree grass. Science Reporter 21(9):474-476.

Janzen, D.H. 1976. Why do bamboos wait so long to flower? Pp. 135-139. in Tropical Trees: Variation, Breeding and Conservation. (J. Burley and B.T.Styles, eds.).Linnean Society Symposium Series No.2. Academic Press.

Johnson, J. 1990. Hormonal clue to bamboo’s elusive blooming. New Scientist, 31st March, p. 31.

Joshi, G.V. 1990. Test tube bamboo. The week June 3, 1990. 60-61.

Kinhal, G.A. 1993. Regeneration of bamboos -Planning for seed supply. BIC - India Bulletin Vo1.3(2) 21-23.

Kochhar, S., Bhag Mal, and R.G. Chaudhary. 1990. Population aspect of the phenological behaviour of bamboo germplasm Pp. 51-58 in Bamboos: Current Research. Proceedings of the International Bamboo Workshop, Nov. 14-18, 1988. Cochin, India (I.V.R. Rao, R. Gnanaharan and C.B. Sastry, eds.). Peechi. Kerala Forest Research Institute, Peechi and IDRC, Canada.

Kondas, S., S.R. Sree Rangaswamy, and R. Jambulingam. 1973. The performance of Bambusa arundinacea Retz. Seedlings in nursery. Madras Agricultural Journal 60:1914-1916.

Nadgauda, R.S., C.K. John, and A.F. Mascarenhas. 1993a. Floral biology and breeding behaviour in bamboos 1. Dendrocalamus strictus Nees. Tree Physiology 13(4):401-408.

Nadgauda, R.S., C.K. John, and A.F. Mascarenhas. 1993b. Floral biology and breeding behaviour in bamboos 11. Bambusa arundinacea wild. Tree physiology 13(4):409-416.

Nadgir, A.L., C.H. Phadke, P.K. Gupta, V.A. Parasharami, S. Nair, and A.F. Mascarenhas. 1984. Rapid multiplication of bamboos by tissue culture. Silvae Genetica 33(6):219-223.

Mascarenhas, A.F., S.S. Khuspe, R.S. Nadgauda, PK. Gupta, E.M. Muralidharan, and B.M. Khan. 1989. Biotechnological application of plant tissue culture to forestry in India. Pp. 73-86. in Applications of Biotechnology in Forestry and Horticulture. (Vibha Davan, ed.). New York, Plenum Press.

Mauria, S. and R.K. Arora. 1988. Genetic Resources of Bamboos - An Indian Perspective. Indian Forester, September 1988:539-548.

Pal, G.D. 1984. Observations on ethnobotany of tribals of Subansiri, Arunachal Pradesh. Bulletin of the Botanical Survey of India: 26(1/ 2):26-37. 

Rao, I.V.R. and I. Usha Rao. 1990. Tissue culture approaches to the mass propagation and genetic improvement of bamboos. Pp. 151-158. in Bamboos: Current Research. Proceedings of the International Workshop, Nov. 14-18,1988. (I.V.R. Rao, R. Gnanaharan, and C.B. Sastry, eds). Peechi, Kerala Forest Research Institute and IDRC, Canada.

Rao, I.V.R., I. Usha Rao, and EN. Roohi. 1992. Bamboo propagation through conventional and in vitro techniques Pp. 41-56. in Rapid propagation of fast growing woody species. (F.W.G. Baker, ed.). C.A.B International. 41-56.

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Arundinaria gracilis Blanchard: Caespitose. Culm ca 4-5 m in height, 2 cm in diameter, green at first, turning yellow with age, branchlets numerous, fasciculate. Distribution: North-East India - Arunachal Pradesh, Sikkim, West Bengal

Arundinaria hirsuta Munro: Vernacular/ local name: Khasi hills - Ustoh, uskong. Daitsisal. Tufted, shrubby, with single stems from the rhizome. Culm ca 2.0 m high, greyish green; internode ca 15 cm long, striate, strigosely hirsute, scabrous in young culms; node not much swollen with l-2 thick branches and a ring below the node formed by the scars of the fallen sheath. Flowering: Recorded from Sikkim by Rogers in 1837 and 1899, by Chatterjee in 1927 and 1956; from Darjeeling by Osmaston in 1904, by Ray in 1950-51, by Hara et al., in 1960. Distribution: North-East India - Sikkim, W. Bengal, Arunachal Pradesh. Wide spread and gregarious; common in low level hills.

Arundinaria microphylla Munro: Smallest bamboo, caespitose, shrubby. Culm ca 1.2 m high; internode ca 7.0 cm long, glabrous; node prominent, with many semiverticillate branches. Distribution: North-East India: Siklcim (Bahadur 1979) and Khasi hills in Meghalaya. Distributed mostly in cool temperate to sub-alpine zone; gregarious and forming large patches in wet places.

Arundinaria racemosa Munro: Local name: Sikkim- Sanu maling, pummoon, pat-hioo; Lepcha and Bhutia - Miknu, mikner. Shrubby, erect, gregarious, with long rhizomes. Culm ca 4.0 m high, ca 5.0 cm in diameter, glaucous when young; internode ca 11 cm long, scabrous, yellow; with prominent, node; branches l-3, fascicled at the node. Flowering: Recorded from Sikkim by Thomson in 1857, King’s collector in 1887/1890, Gammie in 1892, and Phul Singh in 1897. Distribution: North-East India - Arunachal Pradesh, Sikkim, West Bengal. It grows gregariously and forms a very dense undergrowth in mountain tops and valleys. 

Arundinaria rolloana Gamble: Local name: Naga hills - Jipvo. Shrubby and culms arising at distance; rhizome creeping, covered with imbricating scales, culm ca 3.0 m high, 1 cm diameter, greenish yellow, flattened on one side; internode ca 20 cm long, walls thin; node somewhat swollen, with l-3 branchlets. Distribution: Nagaland. This bamboo is rare and has a restricted distribution. It is known by only two collections, one by James Rollo and other by Sri Gopal Banerjee, both were collected from Zullah valley in Naga hills in 1889.

Banzbusa affinis Munro: A low, tufted, shrubby bamboo. Culms 5-7 m high, 2.5-5 cm in diameter, pale green or striped green and white, striate, appressed-hairy; nodes marked with black hairs below, slightly thickened; internodes 30-60 cm long, hollow. Flowering: The gregarious or sporadic flowering of this species has not been recorded. Distribution: Tripura

Bambusa atra Lindl.: A tufted reed-like bamboo. Culms 5-8 m tall, 34 cm diameter, near base; green or dark-green, or yellowish with green stripes; internodes 40-70 cm long; nodes marked by a prominent ring. Flowering: Kurz (1876) mentions that it flowers freely but not die like other bamboos; abundantly flowers in the Botanic Garden of Java and now also in Calcutta, without however setting any fruit. It is often described as constant flowering and also has been under observation upwards of a hundred years in cultivation at Bogor, Calcutta and Peradeniya, but no record of the production of fruit, or of the death of the flowering plants (McClure 1966). Distribution: Native of Moluccas and New Guinea; elsewhere planted. Holttum points out that the plants have been sent, at various times, from Bogor to the Botanic Gardens at Calcutta, Peradeniya and Singapore.

Bambusa auriculata Kurz: An evergreen, tufted bamboo. Culms 12-16 m high, 5-7 cm in diameter glossy green, scurfy when young, yellowish when old; branches curving downwards; nodes brown, strigose; internodes 45-75 cm long, the lower ones shorter, walls thick. Distribution: India (Assam). Introduced in Calcutta, Botanic Garden before 1896. Planted at Forest Research Institute, Dehra Dun.

Bambusa baEcooa Roxb.: Vernacular/local names: Ass. - Baluka; Beng. - Balku bans; Duars - Boro bans; Garo Wamnah, beru; Tripura - Barak. A tall caespitose bamboo. Culms 16-23 m high and 8-15 cm in diameter, greyish green, thick-walled, branched from the base, the diameter of the cavity about 1/3rd of the culm; nodes thickened with a whitish ring above, hairy below; internodes 20- 45 cm long; branches from the lower nodes leafless and hard, mostly spreading, sometimes thornlike. Flowering: Blatter (1931) remarks that Roxburgh had only once seen B. balcooa in flower at the beginning of the nineteenth century and since then very few specimens have been gathered. Gregariously flowered in Eastern UP. in 1986; from 1977-1985, in Bangladesh; it gregariously flowered twice in 1983-84 and 1984-85 (Banik 1987). Distribution: Assam, Arunachal Pradesh, Nagaland, Meghalaya, Tripura, W. Bengal, Bihar, extending to Eastern Uttar Pradesh upto 700 m. According to Roxburgh (1832). It is native of Bengal. Cultivated in foot hills of Arunachal Pradesh; introduced in Kerala. In Tripura commonly cultivated by villagers (Chakraborty, 1988). One of the widely cultivated species in Bangladesh (Banik 1987). This has been introduced in Australia.

Bambusa bambos (L.) Voss.: Vernacular/Local names: Ass. - Kotoba; Beng. - Baroowa, behor, ketuasi, ketwa; Manipuri Saneibi; Mar. - Katang bamboo, oowga; Ori. - Dabu, kating; Tel. - Mulkas veduru, Mullu veduru. English name: Spiny Bamboo. A very densely tufted bamboo with curving branches. Culms usually bright green, shining,usually 15-30 m high and 15-18 cm diameter nodes slightly swollen and few lower nodes produce short aerial roots; internodes usually 20-40 cm long, thick-walled; branches develop from all nodes from the base upwards, lower branches spreading and with recurved spines; spines usually in threes. Flowering: The gregarious flowering of this bamboo has been recorded in the year 1866 from S. Kanara, Coorg, Malabar, 1869 from Satpuras; 1874-1884 from Kanara, Belgaum, Dharwar in Karnataka; 1881- Kumaon hills (U.P.); 1896 from Walayar forest, Coimbatore; 1912-1915 from Wynaad, Kollegal, Coimbatore; in 1913 from Bihar and Orissa, and 1913-15 from Coorg. It was reported that the latest gregarious flowering and the one previous to that recorded for some parts of Karnataka showed the flowering cycle ranged between 44-49 years. Gadgil (1980) reported the gregarious flowering during 1977-79 from Coorg district of Karnataka. Latest gregarious flowering reported in 1976, in Ganjam district of Orissa, after a full cycle of 10 years (Das 1976). Gaur (1987) mentions the period of flowering cycle as 3045 years. However, in Thailand, it was reported to flower every year (Anantachote 1987). Blatter (1931), after analysing all the flowering records available from its natural zone, concluded that its flowering cycle is 30-34 years; also points out that at Dehra Dun where it had been planted it has a cycle of 45 years. Distribution: This species is one of the most important bamboos found almost throughout India ascending to 1200 m. In Maharashtra alone it occupies a total of 12,757 sq.km. area (Desai and Subramanian 1980). The annual harvest of this species from Karnataka alone is 1,60,000 tonnes (Prasad and Gadgil 1980). In plains of Manipur also this species is widely distributed and is the most abundant species (Janmejay Singh 1986). This species is commonly cultivated in plains.

Bambusa bambos var. gigantea Bennet and Gaur.: The variety gigantea is the giant type of B. bambos. Bahadur (1981) mentioned that this rare taxon is represented in the Bambusetum of Forest Research Institute, Dehra Dun and differs from the typical form. The only clump flowered gregariously in 1984. Distribution: Rare and found in few localities in South India. 

Bambusa burmanica Gamble: Vernacular/ local names: Assam - Thaikawa. A caespitose bamboo, l0-20 m in height. Culms 7-10 cm diameter, green solid; nodes with white ring of hairs and waxy powder; internodes 2540 cm long. Distribution: Occurs in North Cachar Hills of Assam (Biswas 1992). Myanmar, Malaysia. Cultivated in Bambusetum of Forest Research Institute, Dehra Dun, Indian Botanic Garden, Calcutta and Van Vigyan Kendra, Chessa (Arunachal Pradesh) 

Bambusa cacharensis Majumdar: Tall bamboo,like B. tulda; young shoots without white powdery excretions below the culm-sheaths; sheath-blades orange-yellow and spreading at right angle to the axis. Distribution: Commonly found in the Brahmaputra valley and in the Cachar hills of Assam. 

Bambusa copelandi Gamble: A large, tufted bamboo. Culms upto 20 m tall, 16-19 cm in diameter at the base walls fairly thick at the base; nodes hardly prominent; internodes upto 45 cm long on robust culms, when youngcovered with appressed silvery hairs. Flowering: Flowered in 1896 in Myanmar and in 1943 at Dehra Dun. Flowering cycle is about 48 years. Distribution: This species was described from Myanmar (Burma). Brandis states - "Largely cultivated in the Northern Shan State" (Myanmar). Cultivated in Botanic Garden, Calcutta and also at Dehra Dun. 

Bambusa gri$ffithiana Munro: A subscandent, soft bamboo. Culms slender, hollow. Flowering: Its flowering as recorded by Griffith in 1837 from Upper Myanmar (Blatter 1930). Distribution: Manipur

Bambusa jaintiana: An allied species to the Bambusa tulda; but differs in glabrous culm-sheaths, smaller article and shrubby habit. Flowering: It has been observed and reported by Kanjilal in 1915 from N.Cachar hills of Assam. Distribution: Khasi and Jaintia hills of Meghalaya, N. Cachar hills of Assam in India, also found in Myanmar.

Bambusa khasiana Munro: Vernacular/local names: Cachari - Wa-chiusa; Khasi - Serim, tumoh, tyrah; Kuki - Chattur; Mikir - Bewar; Naga - Tiuriah. Culms l0-15 m tall, singly growing from a creeping rhizome; internodes 15-25 cm long, covered with golden hairs and transverse blotches, thin-walled. Flowering: The species was collected in flowering during 1850 and 1885 from Jaintiapur (Meghalaya) and Manipur by Clarke (Gamble 1896). Distribution: Northeastern India.

Bambusa kingiana Gamble: A large bamboo with 20-30 m long and upto 10 cm diameter culms. Distribution: Irong (Manipur)

Bambusa longispiculata Gamble: Vernacular / Local name: Bengal - Mitenga; Burma - Thaikwa. Culms 10-15 m high, 7-10 cm in diameter, green in fairly open clumps; nodes slightly thickened, with a circular band of white pubescence above and occasionally lower few nodes have an additional narrow circular band below; internodes 30-70 cm long. Flowering: Cultivated plants, flowered in Europe in 1912; in Bangladesh it flowered sporadically during 1978-85 and gregariously during 1983-85. Distribution: Bangladesh, Myanmar and India (Mizoram) upto ca 1000 m. Cultivated in Indian Botanic Garden, Calcutta and Forest Research Institute, Dehra Dun. Fairly common in the villages of many districts of Bangladesh.

Bambusa mastersii Munro: Vernacular/Local name: Assam - Beti bans. A very small reed-like species, climbing. Distribution: Assam (India)

Bambusa multiplex (Lour.) Raeusch ex Schult.: Vernacular/Local name: Burm. - Pa-lau-pinan-wa; Malay - Bamboo tjeenah aloob, bamboo hower tjeenah; Sans. - Keu-fa. A thickly growing, evergreen caespitose bamboo. Culm usually 24 m high, 1.5-2.5 cm in diameter, glabrous, smooth, green when young, afterwards yellowish, hard, much branched from the base; nodes prominently thickened; internodes usually 20-40 cm long. Flowering: It has been reported to have flowered in Germany in 1808 and 1839; Bangladesh in 1851 and 1879; Sri Lanka in 1863; India at Calcutta in 1890; Singapore in 1892. During 1977-1985 it flowered sporadically from 1977 to 1978 in Bangladesh. Distribution: Indigenous to China and Japan. Introduced into Indian Botanic Garden, Calcutta in 1794 and in Europe before 1800. Holttum’s (1956) reference to a B. nana specimen, dated 1812, from Patna in Wallich’s herbarium shows its early introduction into Bihar also. Cultivated in many countries; mainly in Asian countries such as Sri Lanka, Myanmar, Malaya, Bangladesh, also in many parts of India. This is one of the major species of China.

Bambusa nutans Wall.: Vernacular/Local name: Assam - Deobans, jotia-makal; Ass. -Bidhuli, mukial; Beng. - Makia; Bhutia - Jiu; Hindi - Malabans; Kangra-Nal; Khasi -Seringjai; Kuki - Wa-malang; Lepcha -Mahibans, mahlu, mallo; Orissa - Badia bansa; Sylhet (Bangladesh) - Peechli; Tripura - Kali. A medium-sized graceful bamboo. Culms 6-15 m high, 5-10 cm diameter, loosely clumped, much-branched above, usually unbranched below, straight, green smooth, not shining, white-ringed below the nodes slightly thickened, often hairy lower ones bearing rootlets; internodes usually 25-45 cm long, thick-walled. Flowering: Gamble (1896) remarks that "it seems to flower only at long intervals, for Dehra Dun there is no record since 1840, but in 1893 one whole clump flowered". Though there are many flowering records for different years from 1893 onwards, the authentic gregarious flowering reports after the one in 1840 are for the years 1894-96,1966 and 1979-80. As per record in the Herbarium of Forest Research Institute, the species has been observed in flowering in the year: 1893,1894,1896, 1915,1922,1923,1925,1927,1931,1932,1935,1942, 1944, 1958, 1963, 1966, 1975, 1979-80. The flowering was both sporadic and gregarious type throughout the lower Himalaya. Bahadur (1980) after analysing the flowering records, concluded that apart from sporadic flowering this bamboo seems to flower gregariously after 35 years and at least two separate flowering cycles are involved. The flowering cycle in the first case roughly corresponds to the years: 1896,193l and 1966 and in the second case to the years: 1840 (Gamble L.C.) 1875,1910 (not recorded), 1944 and 1979-80. The former cycle is expected to recur at the turn of the century and the latter after another 14 years, i.e. around 2015. Anantachote (1987) reports that it flowers every year in Thailand. Distribution: Naturally occurring in sub-Himalayan tracts from Yamuna eastwards to Arunachal Pradesh between 700-1500 m of altitude. Common in Brahmaputra valley. It is commonly cultivated in N.W. India especially in and around Dehra Dun; extensively cultivated in Orissa and West Bengal. One of the widely cultivated species in the villages of Bangladesh and one of the commercial species of Thailand (Anantachote 1987).

Bambusa oliveriana: Vernacular/Local name: Burm. - Wapgusan. A very moderate sized tufted bamboo. Culms 13-15 m high, 2.5-5 cm in diameter, glossy green; walls thick; internodes about 35 cm long; branches many from the base upwards. Flowering: J.W. Oliver collected it in flower during 1893-94 from Myanmar and remarked that the flowering appears to be general. Distribution: Myanmar and India (Mizoram). Cultivated in Botanic Garden, Calcutta and in the Bambusetum of Forest Research Institute, Dehra Dun (Varmah and Bahadur 1980).

Bambusa pallida Munro: Vernacular /Local name: Ass. - Bijli, jowa, makal, walkthai; Cachar -Bakhal, burhal, burwal; Khasi - Seskien, skhen, tneng, usken; Lepcha - Pashipo, pshi, pushee; Mikir - Loto; Naga - Tesero, watoi; Tripura - Makal. A caespitose bamboo, growing in thick clumps. Culms 13-20 m high, 5-8 cm in diameter, smooth, olive green, covered with white powder; nodes not prominent; internodes 45-70 cm long, walls thin. Flowering: Specimens were collected with flowers from Bangladesh in 1850 and from Kamrup in Assam in 1890 (Blatter 1930). Distribution: North-east India (Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, northern Bengal, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Nagaland, Sikkim and Tripura), Bhutan and Myanmar. It occurs in hills mainly between 700-2000 m altitude. Cultivated in the plains, mostly in North-eastern India; also in Indian Botanic Garden, Calcutta and in the Bambusetum of Forest Research Institute, Dehra Dun.

Bambusa polymorpha Munro: Vernacular/ Local names: Assam - Jama betwa, betwa; Beng. -Betua, jaibaroowa, jama; Burm. - Kyathaung-wa; Madhya Pradesh (Korku) - Narangi bhas; Tripura - Bari. A large evergreen, densely tufted, sometimes leaf-shedding in dry season. Culms 16- 25 m high, 8-15 cm in diameter, grey to greyish-green, white scurfy when young; nodes thickened, lower ones rooted; internodes 40-60 cm long. Flowering: It has been reported to flower gregariously as well as sporadically and die after seeding. The earliest report of gregarious and sporadical flowering is available from Upper Zamayi forest (Myanmar) in 1852 (Blatter 1930). The gregarious flowering record in the year 1914 from Prome, Myanmar is reported to be after about 55 years (Blatter 1930). Sporadic and gregarious flowering occurred during 1929-30 in the Pyinmana Division, Myanmar. Gaur (1987) mentioned that its flowering cycle is 35-60 years. In Bangladesh, during 1977-1985, it has flowered gregariously from 1981-1982 (Banik 1987). Distribution: This handsome bamboo is indigenous to India, Bangladesh, Myanmar. Hoshangabad Division of Madhya Pradesh. Introduced in Coimbatore Division of Tamil Nadu, and Palghat, Nilambur and Wyanaad Division of Kerala. One of the important bamboo species cultivated in North Bengal, Karnataka state at Coorg.

Bambusa pseudopallida R. Majumdar: Species like Bambusa pallida having shrubby habit; culm-sheath, blade longer than the seath but auricles pointed, one projecting upward and the other downward. Flowering: It has been reported from Assam in 1965 by Kanjilal. Distribution: It is found in the Assam and Meghalaya states of Northeast region of India.

Bambusa striata Lodd. ex Lindi.: Vernacular/ Local name: Beng. - Basini bans, bansini bans; Orissa - Sundrogai. A graceful, tufted bamboo. Culms 4-8 m high, 5-8 cm diameter, glabrous, yellow with light green stripes or rarely light green with yellow stripes, shining; internodes l0-15 cm long, thickwalled. Flowering: According to Curtis (1874) this flowered in November, 1873. Distribution: Native to China and Japan. Commonly cultivated all over India, as an ornamental, upto an altitude of 1000 m.

Bambusa teves Buch. Ham. ex Munro: Vernacular/Local name: Ass. - Bhaluki-makal; Tripura - Paora. Alarge tufted bamboo. Culms up to 20 m high and 8 cm in diameter smooth; internodes 50 cm long. Distribution: India (Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, W. Bengal, Meghalaya, Nagaland, Tripura), and Bangladesh.

Bambusa tulda Roxb.: Vernacular/Local name: Ass. - Wamunna, wagi, nal-bans; Beng. -Tulda, jowa; Duars (West) - Kiranti, matela; Garo - Wati; Hindi - Peka; Kamrup - Bijuli, jati, jao, ghora; Tripura - Mirtinga. An evergreen or deciduous, tufted, gregarious bamboo. Culms usually 7-23 m high and 5-10 cm in diameter, glabrous, green when young, grey-green on maturity, sometimes streaked with yellow, almost unbranched below; nodes slightly thickened, lower ones have fibrous roots; internodes 40-70 cm, white-scurfy when young, with white ring below the nodes, thin walled; branches many from almost all nodes, of lowest nodes slender horizontal and almost leafless. Flowering: It flowers gregariously over considerable areas, but partly uprooted or over-cut culms will often produce flowers. Flowering collections were made from Bengal in 1867-68, 1872, 1884, from Assam in 1889, from Myanmar in 1892 and from Bangladesh (Chittagong) in 1876 and 1886 (Gamble 1896). Recently it flowered gregariously at Dehra Dun in 1986 (Rawat 1987). It was reported to have flowered in Bangladesh during 1929-30 (Baruah 1930). Banik (1987) mentions that in Bangladesh, during the period of 1977- 1985, it gregariously flowered in 1976-77, 1978- 79, 1982-83 and 1983-84.

Bambusa vulgaris Schard. ex Wendl. Collect.: Vernacular/Local Name: Beng. and Manipuri -Bakal; Oriya - Sunderkania bansa. A moderate sized bamboo not densely tufted. Culms 8-20 m high, 5-10 cm in diameter, bright green, glossy, erect, matured yellowish, walls 7-15 mm thick, branching usually from midculm to top; nodes prominent, lower ones often with a narrow ring of roots, usually covered with brown hairs; internodes upto 45 cm long. Flowering: In most of the literature it was mentioned that in many parts of the world this has not flowered. However, it was reported to have flowered in 1851, 1863, 1879,1890 and 1892 in Bangladesh (Chittagong), Sri Lanka, Indian Botanic Garden (Calcutta) and Singapore Garden (Blatter 1930). This flowered sporadically in Bangladesh in 1980-1981 and 1983- 84, (Banik 1987). Distribution: Origin of this species is unknown. Cultivated extensively in many parts of the world; in India mainly in north-east and also in many other parts of the country. Waheed Khan (1972) mentions that it is found in Surguja district of Madhya Pradesh and sporadically almost throughout the state. This is common bamboo grown in homesteads and gardens.

Bambusa wamin Camus.: Medium sized graceful bamboo. Culms usually 4-8 m high, loosely tufted, usually upper 1/3rd length arching, dark green, shining and glabrous; internodes l0- 15 cm long, rarely longer, much swollen (pitcher shaped) in the lower half; the swollen part l0-12 cm diameter, lower 3 or 4 nodes with rootlets. Flowering: Not known so far. Distribution: So far not known from wild state. Cultivated in the northern Shan State, said by some to have been brought from China, by others from Chiangmai in Thailand (Brandis 1906). Planted in many countries.

Chimonobambusa callosa (Munro) Nakai: Local name: Khasi hills - Uskong, uspar, spar, sypar. Shrubby, thorny, Culm ca 6 m in height and ca 2.5 cm in diameter greyish green; internode ca 15 cm long, striate; node swollen, subtended by a ring formed by the base of the fallen sheath, fringed with soft brown hairs and studded with short thick conical spines. Flowering: Recorded dates are - Khasia hills - Clarke in 1885 and G. Panigrahi in 1957-58; Kameng Dist. (Arunachal Pradesh) - R.S. Rao in 1957 and an anonymous collection in 1980. Distribution: North east India - Arunachal Pradesh, Nagaland, Manipur, Meghalaya and Mizoram. Distributed mostly in warm temperate to sub-tropical zone. Grows in open clumps in evergreen forest; common in oak forest. It flourishes in deep shade forming the only underwood in evergreen hill forest.

Chimonobambusa densi;folia (Munro) Nakai J. Arn.: Shrubby; rhizome thick, covered with imbricating scales. Culm ca 0.9 m high, smooth; internode ca 7.5 cm long, walls thick; nodes prominent with 2 or 3 branches. Distribution: South India - Kerala (Anaimudi hills); occasionally found in patches. Rare.

Chimonobambusa grifithiana (Munro) Nakai: Local Name: Khasi and Jaintia - Khnap, uspar,knap, ukhnap. uskhnap. Shrubby, erect. Culm ca 8 m in height, 3.0 cm in diameter, olive green; internodes ca 14.5 cm, striate, furrowed; node prominent, woolly, bearing a circle of conical stout short spines. Flowering: Recorded from Assam in 1833; Meghalaya in 1894; Mizoram in 1953. Distribution: Northeast India - Arunachal Pradesh, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Nagaland, West Bengal.

Chimonobambusa jaunsarensis: Local name: Jaunsar - Ningal, ringal; Garhwal - Jumra, gyons, sarura, sarurha. Reed-like, with single culms at intervals, non clump-forming; rhizome long and creeping, 0.7 cm in diameter, joints ca 1.2 cm long, scales straw-coloured and shining. Culm ca 4.5 m high, bright glaucous green when young, greenish brown when old; internode ca 28 cm long, glabrous, striate; node marked by a narrow ring; branchlets usually 3, semiverticillate. Flowering: Recorded by Rao in 1978 from Chamoli Distt., Garhwal (UP.). Distribution: North-west India -Uttar Pradesh (Garhwal and Kumaon Hills). Distributed mostly in cool temperate zone and sometimes in subalpine zone; formed dense forest undergrowth over more than 130 Square Km in Garhwal (Osmaston, 1922), but now rare (Bahadur and Naithani, 1978).

Dendrocalamus brandisii (Munro) Kurz.: Vernacular/Local names: Beng. Bulka; Manipur -Wanan. A very large evergreen tufted bamboo. Culms ashy-grey to greenish-grey, 19-33 m high and 13-20 cm in diameter; nodes slightly swollen, lower ones with rootlets; internodes 30-38 cm long. Flowering: Flowered gregariously in Coorg during 1961-62 (Kaikini 1963-64). It flowers sporadically as well as gregariously (Troup 1921). Distribution: India (Andaman and Manipur); upto an altitude of 1300 m. Janmejay Singh (1986) reports that is abundant in Jiribam area of Manipur. Cultivated in Calcutta Botanic Garden. Introduced in Karnataka at Coorg between 1913-24 (Kaikini 1963-64); plantation was raised at Asoga between 1971-73 (Shivanagi 1980). This species has been tried in Kerala (Nair, 1980).

Dendrocalamus calostachyus (kurz):A tufted large bamboo. Culms usually 20-25 m high,thickened and annulate;internodes 30-40 cm long.Flwering:It flowered at F.R.I.,Dehra Dun in 1973(Anon.1975).Distribution:Native of Myanmar;occurs upto 1000 m elevation.Naithani(1985)reported its occurrence in wild from Meghalaya and Nagaland.It is grown in Indian Botanic Garden,Calcutta and Forest Research Institute,Dehra Dun.

Dendrocalamus collettianus Gamble.: Culms, culm-sheaths and leaves unknown. Distribution: Native of Myanmar; cultivated in Indian Botanic Garden, Calcutta.

Dendrocalamus gigan teus Munro: English name: Giant Bamboo. Vernacular/Local names: Assam - Worra., Manipuri - Maroobob. The tallest of bamboos with close culms and slender branches. Culms 24-30 m tall, 20-30 cm diameter, usually 2-2.5 cm thick-walled, dull green, covered with white waxy crust when young; internodes 35-40 cm long, lower nodes with root scars. Flowering: It flowered at Indian Botanic Garden in 1861 and 1888 (Gamble 1896); at FRI campus, Dehra Dun in 1979 (Bahadur 1979). Since its introduction in Kurseong Division during 1880- 1888, there was no report of its flowering till 1974 when all the culms of one clump flowered (Lahiri 1974). Only one clump flowered in 1981 along Tuli-Workha road of Nagaland (Gupta 1982). Distribution: It is a native of Myanmar. Frequently cultivated in Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Manipur, Nagaland and West Bengal; occasionally in other parts of the country.

Dendrocalamus hamiltonii Nees et Arn. ex Munro: Vernacular/Local names: Nepalese -Tamo; Assam - kokwa; Tripura - Pecha. A large caespitose bamboo sometimes growing tall and erect or often culms at an angle or curved downwards. Culm large, 12-20 m or upto 25 m tall, usually naked below, much branched above, 10-18.5 cm in diameter, greyish-white when young with dense appressed pubescence, dull green when old; lower nodes marked with root scars; internodes 30-50 cm long, wall ca 1.2 cm thick. Flowering: It flowers usually sporadically, sometimes gregariously Gamble (1896) mentioned its gregarious flowering from Sikkim and Dehra Dun during 1894. Again in 1992 it flowered gregariously at Dehra Dun. Distribution: Northwest Himalaya, Sikkim, Bhutan, Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Manipur, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Nagaland and Tripura.

Dendrocalamus hookeri Munro: Vernacular / local names: Assam - Seiat, sejsai, sijong, ukotang, ussey; Jaintia - Sieijong, Khasi - Denga; Lepcha -Patu; Manipuri - Ooei; Nep. - Tili bans. A large tufted bamboo. Culms 15-20 m high, l0-15 cm in diameter, dark green, usually naked below, curving branches above; with many long internodes 40-50 cm long, rough, hairy; walls ca 2.5 cm thick. Flowering: Flowered in Khasi Hills in 1850 and in Nainital in 1881 (Gamble 1896); in Shillong in 1967 (Gupta 1968); in Lushai hills during 1924-28 (Parry 1931). After flowering the clumps die. Distribution: Arunachal Pradesh, Nagaland, Mizoram, Meghalaya, North Bengal, Sikkim, Manipur. Widely cultivated in Shillong; introduced in Nainital before 1881; also planted in Garhwal. Cultivated in Botanic Garden, Calcutta.

Dendrocalamus longispathus Kurz.: Local name: Tripura - Rupai. A large handsome tufted bamboo. Culms usually l0-18 m high, glacous green when young, greyish-green when old; nodes slightly swollen, often rooting; internodes 25-60 cm long, 6-10 cm in diameter, covered by long papery remnants of sheaths and dark-brown pubescence, walls ca 1.2 cm thick. Flowering: It has been reported to have flowered in different years in Bangladesh and in Myanmar. Blatter (1931) points out that it comes under the class irregularly flowering - gregariously and often sporadically Distribution: Mizoram and Tripura. This species is generally found in the village area of Dhalbhum tract of Singhbum District of Bihar (Prasad 1965). Introduced into Orissa (Mathur 1974); into the western Peninsula and cultivated at Calcutta, Malabar, etc. (Gamble 1896).

Dendrocalamus membranaceus Munro: A moderate-sized strong bamboo forming loose clump. Culm straight, 20-24 m high, 6-10 cm in diameter covered with white powdery deciduous scurf when young, green on maturity; nodes strongly ringed, basal ones with rootlets; internodes 22-28 cm long; upper branches slender, leafy, drooping. Flowering: It flowered gregariously in FRI, arboretum, Dehra Dun, in 1973 (Lohani 1973) and in 1992 (Naithani and Biswas 1992). Distribution: Native of Myanmar. Cultivated in Calcutta Botanic Garden, Dehra Dun and introduced in Kerala.

Dendrocalamus parishii Munro: Culms, culm-sheaths and leaves unknown. Distribution: Himachal Pradesh.

Dendrocalamus patellaris Gamble: Vernacular/ Local names: Lepcha - Pagjiok, pagjiok-pao; Mikir-Footoong. Evergreen, caespitose. Culms 7-10 m tall, 2.54 cm in diameter,green; nodes with softly hairy ring; internodes 3045 cm long, whitish below the nodes, thin-walled. Flowering: Recorded from Nagaland in 1890. Distribution: Uttar Pradesh (Kumaon), West Bengal (North Bengal), Sikkim, Nagaland and Arunachal Pradesh; between altitude of 1200-1500 m.

Dendrocalamus sahnii Naithani and Bahadur: A caespitose bamboo. Culms upto 3 m tall, 2-3 cm in diameter, pale green, striate; internodes glabrous, 8-20 cm long. Flowering: Reported to have flowered in Arunachal Pradesh in 1977. Distribution: Arunachal Pradesh (Subansiri district, Zoram); it grows with Phyllostachys assamica in the hills at an altitude of ca 1800 m; not common.

Dendrocalamus sericeus Munro: A densely tufted bamboo with strong culms resembling those of D. strictus. Distribution: Bihar (Parasnath, Chota Nagpur).

Dendrocalamus sikkimensis Gamble: Vernacular/Local Names: Garos - Wadah; Lepcha - Pugriang; Mizoram - Rawmi, Sangau; Nepali -Bhalu bans. Culms large, 17-20 m, bare at the base, 12-20 cm in diameter, dark green; internodes upto 45 cm long, rough. Flowering: Gregarious flowering has been reported from Kalimpong Division in 1916 by Blatter in 1930 and, Lahiri in 1982; from Mizoram during 1977-79 (Mohan Ram and Gopal 1981). Distribution: Northeastern India, in the hills usually upto 2100 m altitude; West Bengal (North Bengal Himalaya) Sikkim, Arunachal Pradesh, Nagaland, Meghalaya (Garo Hills). Also cultivated in Indian Botanic Garden, Calcutta and elsewhere.

Dendrocalamus strictus (Roxb.) Nees: English name: Male Bamboo. Vernacular/Local Names: Beng. - Karail; Guj. - Nakur bans; Kan. - Kiri bidiru; Mar. - Male bamboo, nanvel; Oriya - Salia; Tam. - Kalmungil; Tel. - Sadanapa veduru; Tripura - Lathi bans. A deciduous densely tufted bamboo. Culm 8-16 m high, 2.5 - 8 cm in diameter, pale blue-green when young, dull green or yellowish when old, much curved above half of its height; nodes somewhat swollen, basal nodes often rooting, lower nodes often with branches; internodes 30- 45 cm long, thick-walled. Flowering: Apart from the gregarious flowering after long intervals, sporadic flowering can be seen every year in different parts of the country. The flowering cycle for the Garhwal outer Himalayas tract is 20-60 years. In North Kanara, this flowered sporadically spread over 12-13 years, viz. 1946-1958. In Kalahandi forest division of Orissa state, this species sporadically flowered in 1968. Gregarious flowering was reported from different parts of the country. Kalagarh Forest Division of Uttar Pradesh in 1950-56 and in 1968, Kalahandi and Rayagada Division of Orissa state in 1967; Porahat Forest Division of Bihar during 1921-22 and in 1968; Mandla Division of Madhya Pradesh during 1961-63; various localities of Maharashtra during 194042, 194849, 1957-58, 1961-62,1978-80 (Bennet and Gaur, 1990). Blatter (1930) listed the flowering years of this species from various parts of India and adjacent regions for the period 1865-1914. Distribution: Widely distributed in India in semi-dry and dry zone along plains and hilly tracts usually upto an altitude of 1000 m;also commonly cultivated throughout the plains and foot hills. 

Dinochloa andamanica Kurz.: English name: The Climbing Bamboo. Local names: Andaman -Baradahbarat, bulu akar. Culms single, green, glossy, upto 90 m long, creeping along the ground, and rooting at the nodes or climbing over the tall trees usually to a hieght of 35 m; branches geniculate, single, as long and stout as the culms; branchlets slender, numerous, in whorls, hanging with dense foliage; nodes swollen, marked by the base of fallen culm-sheath;internodes 2346 cm long, 2.5 cm in diameter, walls thin. Distribution: Andaman and Nicobar islands. Very common and forms impenetrable tangled thickets and often climbing on the tallest trees.  

Dinochloa compacfiflora (Kurz) McClure: A handsome climbing bamboo. Culms solid, greyish-green, rough, scandent, spreading, climbing over tall trees,l0-33 meter long and 1.2-2.5 cm in diameter, nodes swollen, whitish; internodes 30-62 cm long. Flowering: It was reported to have flowered at Cachar of Assam in 1921, at F.R.I. arboretum, Dehra Dun in 1980 (Bahadur and Naithani 1983). Bahadur and Naithani also pointed out that the flowering report of this species from Manipur (India) by Malick in 1974 was erroneous due to misidentification. Distribution: Assam (Cachar). Cultivated at Forest Research Institute, DehraDun.

Dinochloa gracilis (Majumdar) Bennet: Differs from M. masfersii in having non-falcate deciduous auricles and from M. indicus in having ciliate auricles, terete culms and acute nodal buds. The young shoot unlike other species with spreading, large leafy, culm-shea th blades. Inflorescence not known. Distribution: Assam (Borail Range of North Cachar Hills).

Dinochloa indica (Majumdar) Bennet: Evergreen scandent bamboo. Culms very long, solid, arching over tall trees and then hanging downwards with tufts of green leaves at the branch-tips; culm-nodes with woody ring formed by the persistent lower part of the cylindrical culm-sheaths; internodal region white scurfy; branches many in tufts, supporting often a solitary large bud that develops into a branch as thick as the main culm. Distribution: Assam and Manipur. Common in the tropical low-land and rain forests of Cachar, Manipur and other adjoining parts of Assam.

Dinochloa maclellandii (Munro) Kurz.: An evergreen, lofty, often scandent bamboo. Culms upto 30 m long, if climbing, shorter and straggling if growing unsupported, 2.5-5 cm in diameter, geniculate, covered by the persistent loose sheaths, grey-green, walls thin; nodes swollen; internodes 15-20 cm long, often angled when young, scabrous with brown appressed pungent hairs. Distribution: Assam and West Bengal; mainly in Tropical Low land Rain Forest.

Drepanostachyum hookerianum (Munro) Keng: Local Name: Lepcha - Praong, prong, praing, preng, pareng, prem; Nepali - Singhane, singhani, suighani. Caespitose. Culm ca 6 m high, striate, slender, glaucous green with white scurf; internode ca 25 cm long, 3 cm in diameter, fistular with a bluish ring at the top; node not much swollen but prominently ringed with the persistent base of fallen sheath; branchlets numerous, chiefly from the upper nodes. Flowering: Sikkim - Hooker in 1848, Pantling in 1885; West Bengal-Rogers in 1901,1902 and Silviculturist in 1932 and 1963. Distribution: North-East India-Arunachal Pradesh, Meghalaya, Sikkim, West Bengal.Distributed mostly in warm temperate to subtropical zone. It grows on hill side often in evergreen Oak forest. Cultivated in various botanical gardens. 

Drepanostachyum intermedium (Munro) Keng: Local name: Lepcha - Purmiok, purmiak, purmak, permyok, permiok, parmiok, prongnok, purmia; Nepali - Tite, titi, titay, ningalo, nigala, nigalo; Lushai - Lik. A thin caespitose shrub. Culm ca 4 m high, ca 1.2 cm in diameter, smooth, greyish green; internode ca 25 cm long; node swollen with a prominent ring and a whitish line below them; branchlets many from the node, fasciculate. Flowering: Recorded from Sikkim by Hooker in 1848, Anderson in 1868, Gamble in 1879, Rogers in 1899, and Majumbar in 1968. Distribution: North-East India - Arunachal Pradesh, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Sikkim, West Bengal. Distributed mostly in warm temperate to sub tropical zone. Grows gregariously as forest undergrowth often in Oak and Rhododendron forest. Also cultivated.

Drepanostachyum jainianum (Das and Pal) Majumdar: A handsome caespitose bamboo. Culm ca 6 m in height, ca 2.0 cm in diameter, striate, light brown; internode striate, hairy; nodes having a peltate hairy disc; branches many, fasciculate. Flowering: Sikkim - in 1905 and 1908; Darjeeling - in 1979. Distribution: North-East India - Sikkim; West Bengal (Darjeeling). Distributed mostly in subtropical zone; apparently very rare; prefers a very humid and cooler habitats.

Drepanos tachyum khasianum (Munro) Keng: Local name: Khasi - Namlang, namlong, udait namlang; West Bengal - Titi ningalo. A slender bushy bamboo. Culm ca 4 m long, ca 1.3 cm in diameter, smooth, dark green, becomes blackish with age; internode ca 20 cm long, striate; node prominent, having a ring formed by the persistent bases of the fallen sheath; branchlets many, fasciculate. Flowering: Gregarious and periodical. Records are many and of different years; recent ones are 1949, 1957-58, 1969, 1978-79 and 1985. Distribution: North-East India - Manipur, Meghalaya, Sikkim, West Bengal. Distributed mostly in warm temperate to subtropical zone. It is common in Meghalaya between 900-1800 m. Also cultivated.

Drepanos tachyum kurzii (Gamble) Pandey : A low level bushy bamboo. Culm ca 1.2 cm in diameter, thin, smooth; internode ca 18 cm long, striate, yellow; node prominent, having a thick ring formed by the bases of fallen culm-sheath; branchlets many, fascicled, with swollen joints. Distribution: North-East India - Meghalaya (Khasi Hills), Manipur, Nagaland, Rare.

Drepanostachyum polystachyum (Kurz ex Gamble) Pandey: Shrubby. Culm ca 4 m high, soft; branchlets many, fasciculate. Flowering: Recorded from Sikkim by Kurz in 1868, Phul Singh in 1897 and Gammie in 1898; from Khasi Hills by Mann in 1876. Distribution: North-East India -Meghalaya (Khasi Hills); Sikkim. Distributed mostly in warm temperate to subtropical zone. It usually grows on dry hills, ridges or rocky slopes and occasionally near stream.

Drepanostachyum suberectum (Munro) Majumdar: Local name : Khasia hills - Ukadai namlang, Iambnang, namlang. A graceful shrubby bamboo, wiry, erect, in thick clumps. Culm ca 4 m high, 0.7 m in diameter, yellowish brown, smooth; internode ca 20 cm long, cavity very small; nodes swollen; branchlets in fascicle. Distribution: North-East India -Arunachal Pradesh, Meghalaya (Khasia and Jaintia hills), Sikkim. Distributed mostly in warm-temperate to subtropical zone; common in the hill forest and gregarious along banks of rivers and streams.

GigantochZoa albociliata (Munro) Kurz.: Vernacular Name: Assam - Kalisuneti. A densely tufted bamboo, evergreen or semi-deciduous. Culms 6-9 m high, 1.5-2.5 cm in diameter, greyish-green with white stripes, hirsute above; nodes raised in a ring formed by the base of the sheath; internodes 15-38 cm long, walls moderately thick. Flowering: It has been reported to have flowered in Assam during 1956-60 and in 1987 (Gupta, 1987). Gupta also mentioned that it flowers sporadically almost every year and the intensity is never more than 0.001 per cent of total clumps; seeds from such sporadic flowering are not fertile. Distribution: Myanmar, Indo-China. Widely cultivated in West Bengal; also introduced in Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Meghalaya and elsewhere in the country

Gigantochloa apus (81. ex Schu1t.f.) Kurz.: Vernacular name: Tekserah. Strongly tufted bamboo with erect drooping culms; rhizome usually at soil level; but sometimes raised considerably above it. Culms bright green or yellow, hollow, at base 2.5-9 cm diameter with 6-13 mm thick wall, little swollen at nodes and constricted between nodes. Flowering: Kurz recorded its flowering in 1878 from Tenasserim in Myanmar (Blatter 1929). Meghalaya (Garo hills).

Gigantochloa atroviolacea Widjaja: English name: Black bamboo. Clumps loosely tufted. Culms 8-12 m high, 6-8 cm diameter at base, purplish, erect, dark-green when young and dark brownish-purple with age; internodes usually 30- 50 cm long, 5-8 mm thick walled; nodes with whitish ring, lower ones with aerial roots. This Javanese species has been brought to Calcutta Botanical Garden 100 years ago; also grown in the arboretum of FRI, Dehra Dun. 

Gigantochloa atter (Hassk.) Kurz.: Large tufted bamboo. Culms upto 22 m high on old clumps, 5-10 cm in diameter. Distribution: Native of Malaya, cultivated at Indian Botanic Garden, Calcutta.

Gigantochloa macrostachya Kurz.: Local name: Garo Hills - Tekserah. A large evergreen bamboo. Culms l0-16 m tall, 6-10 cm in diameter, glaucous when young below the nodes, afterwards dark green in colour, nodes scarcely swollen, hairy; internodes 45-75 cm long, the lower very short. Flowering: Brandis recorded the flowering in 1862 (Blatter 1929). Distribution: Assam, Meghalaya, Mizoram.

Gigantochloa pseudoarundinacea (Steud.) Widjaja: A large evergreen bamboo, with densely tufted clumps; rhizomes developing a mound at the centre. Culms l0-30 m high, 7- 13 cm diameter, green to yellowish green with thin yellow stripes, upper part of the internodes with brown appressed hairs when young and glabrous and smooth when old; lower nodes with aerial roots; internodes upto 45 cm or rarely upto 60 cm long, upto 20 mm thick-walled. Flowering: Reported to have flowered in 1854 and in 1982, (Widjaja 1987). Distribution: This Javanese species is grown in Indian Botanic Garden, Calcutta.

Gigan tochloa rostrata Wong: Local names: Madhya Pradesh (Bastar and Kanker) -Pani bans; Orissa - Bolangi; Tripura - Kailyai. Tufted dark-green bamboo. Culms 5-8 m tall, 2.5-5 cm diameter thick-walled, slightly drooping, basal portion with yellowish stripes; internodes 20-30 cm long. Flowering: It was reported that gregarious flowering and seeding occurred in Bastar (Madhya Pradesh) in March, 1960;local enquiry revealed that the species had last seeded 45-50 year ago (Anon. 1961). Distribution: Assam, Meghalaya, Tripura, Orissa, Bihar, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra and Karnataka. Cultivated in different parts of the country.

Himalayacalamus falconeri (Hook. f. ex Munro) Keng: Local name: Garhwal - Dev-ringal, dev-ringal, ningal; West Bengal - Phurse, phuorenigalo; Sikkim - Pao-mung, pumoon. Shrubby, slender. Culm ca 6 m in height and 2 cm in diameter, smooth when young and covered with white scurf when old, fistular; internode ca 20 cm long, walls-thick, striate; node raised at the joint, with the persistent base of the fallen sheath below; branchlets many, rigid, filiform and fascicled at the node. Flowering: It flowers gregariously. Recorded flowering years: Pindari glaciers - Stapf in 1846; Sikkim - Clarke in 1876, Maharaja’s secretary in 1924 and Mitra in 1954; UP. (Garhwal and Kumaon Hills) -Osmaston in 1897-1900,1914-15 and Naithani in 1972 and 1983; Shimla (cultivated) Parker in 1936. Distribution: North-West India - Uttar Pradesh (Garhwal and Kumaon hills); North-East India - Sikkim, West Bengal (North Bengal). Distributed mostly in temperate zone. It grows on the steep mountain slopes especially on limestone rocky areas and also in moist ravines and banks of water courses, etc. Sometimes forming moderately dense undergrowth in moist temperate forest.

Indocalamus floribundus (Thwaites) Nakai: Erect, shrubby. Culm ca 1.5 m in height; internode ca 9 cm long, covered with hairs; node swollen. Distribution: Travancore (Rama Rao 1914)

Indocalamus walkerianus (Mum-o) Nakai: Culm ca 3 cm in diameter, upper part thickly covered with sheaths of fallen leaves; internode rather rough, striate. Flowering: Reported to flower frequently. Distribution: South India - Tamilnadu (Palni Hills)

Indocalamus wightianus (Nees) Nakai: Local name: South India - Chewari. A gregarious shrub. Culm ca 3 m in height, 1.2 cm in diameter, dark-green turning yellowish-brown with age; internode ca 20 cm long, very rough, striate, usually flattened on one side; node swollen, with a conspicuous ring formed below by the base of the fallen sheath; branches single with 1 or 2 branchlets, verticillate. Flowering: It flowers annually; the plant does not die after seeding (Blatter, 1930 and 1931). Recorded dates: Nilgiri (Dist.) 1872, 1878 (King); 1882 (Brandis); 1883-1889 (Gamble). Distribution: South India - Tamilnadu (Nilgiri, Tinnavelly); Kerala (Palghat). It is common on the Nilgiris where it covers the upper slopes of the hills above 1800 m, chiefly as an underwood in the evergreen sholas; gregarious in moist areas.

Indocalamus wightianus var. hispidus, Nakai: Shrubby erect. Culm ca 3 m in height, covered with bulbous based golden hairs; internode flat on one side; nodes swollen with a hairy ring below. Flowering: It flowers annually, almost every year; does not die after seeding. Distribution: Tamilnadu (Nilgiris hills). Common on the sides of Doddabetta and in the Kundahs range, and also in the crest of the ghats from Sispara to Makurti as an evergreen underwood in ‘Sholas’ or open

Melocanna arundina Parkinson: An evergreen tufted bamboo. Culms 3-5 m high, about 2.5 cm in diameter, dark green, very hollow, hardly thickened at the annulate joints, internodes about 30 cm long. Distribution: Native of Myanmar; cultivated in Indian Botanic Garden, Calcutta.

Melocanna baccifera (Roxb.) Kurz.: Ass. - Tarai; Beng. - Muli; Cachar - Wati; Garo - Watrai; Manipuri - Moubi; Mikir - Artem; Naga - Tzrriah. Evergreen bamboo; clump diffuse. Culms l0-20 m high, 3-7 cm diameter green when young, straw-coloured when old; longest internodes 20- 50 cm long; nodes slightly larger with a circular band of white bloom little below; branches arise from the top 1/3rd of the culm, all equal and slander. Flowering: It was reported to have flowered during the followering years:1863-66, 1892-93,1900-02,1910-12,1933,1960 (Chatterjee 1960, Vaid 1972). Sporadic flowering was reported in Cachar and Manipur in 1967 (Nath 1968). The length of flowering cycle period is according to Gamble ca 30 years according to Kurz 30-35 years, according to Troup ca 45 years and according to the data from Chittagong and Aracan ca 38 years; the records are not sufficient for any definite conclusion (Blatter 1931a). The flowering of this species appears to induce a vast and comparatively sudden increase of rats, while during the flowering period of Dendrocalamus hookeri and Bambusa tulda the increase appears to be more gradual (Parry 1931). Distribution: Assam, Manipur, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Tripura, W. Bengal and other parts of eastern India in the plains and low hills. Biswas et al (1991) reported the gregarious distribution of this species from East Sikkim. The main bamboo species of Manipur occuping 80% of the total area of South western forests (Janmejay Singh, 1986). Introduced into Dehra Dun in 1892 (Gamble 1896) and into Karnataka at Dandeli (Kaikini 1964). It is one of the major species of Bangladesh forests (Banik 1987); very common in Myanmar. Cultivated in many Asian countries and also introduced into other parts of the world.

Neomicrocalamus clarkei (Gamble ex Brandis) Pandey: A shrubby bamboo. Culm ca 3 m high, solid. Distribution: Manipur, Sikkim

Neomicrocalamus mannii (Gamble) Pandey: A graceful, tufted, wiry climbing bamboo. Culm ca 10 mm long, ca 5.0 mm in diameter, solid, much branched; internode ca 90 cm long smooth; node thickened. Distribution: North-East India -Meghalaya (Jaintia Hills)

Neomicrocalamus prainii (Gamble) Keng: Local name: Khasi and Jaintia Hills - Sampit, u-speit, uppit; Naga Hills - Kevva. A wiry climbing shrubby bamboo. Culm ca 10 m long and ca 8.0 mm in diameter, solid, slender, smooth, yellowish; internode ca 20 cm long, walls thick; node swollen, with a well marked ring; branchlets many, fascicled. Flowering: Rare. Prain recorded in 1886 from Naga Hills. Distribution: North-East India - Meghalaya, Nagaland. Distributed mostly in subtropical zone.

OchZandra beddomei Gamble: Culms and culm-sheaths not known. Flowering: Reported to have flowered in 1875 and 1876 (Blatter 1929). Distribution: It is rare. Kerala (Wynaad), Tamil Nadu (Nilgiris)

Ochlandra ebracteata Raizada and Chatterji: Erect shrubby or arborescent reed-like gregarious bamboo. Culms upto 4.4 m tall, 24 cm in diameter, more or less smooth; nodes shiny, green; internodes upto 45.7 cm long, walls usually 5-7 mm thick. Flowering: Reported to have flowered in Kerala in 1961 and 1963. Distribution: Kerala; Confined to the hilly districts along streams in the valleys; gregarious.

Ochlandra scriptoria (Dennst.) Fisch.: Local name: Mal. - Ammei, bheesha, kolanji, ottal. A gregarious shrubby bamboo. Culms erect, upto 5 m tall, smooth; nodes somewhat raised; internodes ca 45 cm long, 2.5 cm in diameter, walls 5 mm thick. Flowering: Flowers sporadically each year and does not die down after flowering (Blatter 1929). Distribution: On the Western Ghats Karnataka, Kerala and Tamil Nadu; found mostly on the river banks in the wetter parts only.

Ochlandra setigera Gamble: Small reed-like bamboo, tufted, erect or straggling. Culms ca 6 m tall, 1.2-1.8 cm thick, smooth, without branches below, much branched above; nodes hardly swollen; internodes 25-30 cm long, whitish below the nodes, walls 0.2-0.5 mm thick. Distribution: Tamil Nadu (Nilgiri Hills); in ravines above Gudalur at ca 1000 m altitude.

Ochlandra sivagiriana (Gamble) Camus: This species is similar to 0. scriptoria but it is a larger bamboo in all respects. Distribution: Tar-nil Nadu, in the Ghats of Sivagiri and Palni Hills.

Ochlandra talboti Brandis: A graceful reed-like bamboo growing in dense clumps. Culms 3-6 m tall and 1.2-1.8 cm in diameter, slender and drooping at the top, sometimes scandent and reaching as high as 12-15 m; nodes thickened, glabrous; internodes long. Flowering: Throughout North Kanara it flowered in 1896. (Blatter 1929). Distribution: Karnataka (Coorg and North Kanara) in rain forests often along the banks of rivers and nallahs of the southern ghats.

Ochlandra travancorica Benth: English name: Elephant Grass of Travancore. Local names: Mal. - Etta, km-eetta, vei; Tam. - Eeral, eera-kalli, iral, irul, ita-kalli, nanal, odai. Erect, shrubby or arborescent, reed-like gregarious bamboo. Culms 2-6 m tall, grey-green, rough, 2.5-5 cm in diameter, nodes somewhat swollen and marked with base of fallen sheaths; internodes usually 45-60 cm long, sometimes even 1.50 m long, walls very thin 2.5 mm. Flowering: Reported flowering dates are -1868,1875,1882,1905 (Blatter 1929). Distribution: Kerala and Tamil Nadu.

Ochlandra travancorica Benth. var. hirszr ta Gamble: This variety is similar to the main species in most of the aspects but can be distinguished by its leaves which are thicker and their edges more cartilaginous; leaf-sheaths with appressed bulbous-based hairs. Spikelets are thickly clothed with light brown velvety pubescence. Distribution: Tamil Nadu (Tinnevelli Ghats at 700-1000 m altitude).

Ochlandra wightii Fischer: Local name: Tam. - Ira-calli. Culms and culm-sheaths not known. Flowering: Reported flowering dates are 1835 and 1882 (Blatter 1929). Distribution: Tamil Nadu (Tinnevelli Ghats at Courtallum upto 900 m altitude).

Oxytenanthera abyssinica (A. Rich.) Munro: A fine distinct looking tufted bamboo. Young shoots; bluish-green with creamish-yellow blades; apex shortly pointed. Culms 6-10 m high, 6-10 cm in diameter, bright green, unarmed; internodes about 20 cm long; branches sometimes in dense fascicles. Flowering: Breitenbach (1961) mentioned that this species, in Ethiopia, flowers and dies every seven years. Distribution: Tropical Africa. Cultivated at Forest Research Institute, Dehra Dun.

Oxytenanthera parvfolia Brandis ex Gamble: A large-sized bamboo with culms upto 7.6 cm in diameter. Flowering: Brandis recorded its flowering in 1880 from Yonzalin valley (Myanmar) (Blatter 193 ). Gupta (1987) recorded gregarious flowering in Haflong (Assam) during Feb. 1987. Distribution: Assam and Mizoram (Naithani, 1990).

Phyllostachys assamica Gamble ex Brandis: A caespitose bamboo. Culms l0-12 m tall, brilliant green in colour, upto 20 cm in diameter, sometimes more, with a waxy ring below the nodes which disappears with age; nodes glabrous and internodes short. Distribution: Assam and Arunachal Pradesh.

Phyllostachys aurea Carrie ex A. and C.Riviere: English name: Fishpole bamboo, golden bamboo. Tufted bamboo with creaping rhizomes. Culms 2- 8 m tall, 2-3 cm in diameter; internode, 8-10 cm long, cylindrical or grooved, green, golden-yellow when older, smooth, glabrous, the lower ones often irregularly shortened and swollen, thrusting the sheath scars into an irregularly slanted zigzag pattern; nodes swollen above the sheath scar, the latter always fringed with short white hairs when newly formed, wall 4-6 mm thick. Native of China. Introduced in India. Distribution: Cultivated as an ornamental in gardens.

Phyllostachyus bambusoides Sicb. and Zucc.: Vernacular/local name: Makade (Japanese). Rhizome monopodial, l0-30 mm thick. Culms 9- 22 m high, flattened at one side, l0-15 cm in diameter, rarely attaining 20 cm diameter, glabrous, smooth,polished, green with waxy ring below the nodes, which disappears with age; internodes 20-30 cm long; culm and stout, dull black. Distribution: Native of China. Introduced in India.

Phyllostachys mannii Gamble: A caespitose shrub. Culms 5-6 m tall, nodes prominent; internodes 20x2.5-3 cm, green or yellow, flattened on one side. Distribution: Arunachal Pradesh and Meghalaya.

Phyllostachys puberula (Miq.) Munro: Culm 3- 6 m tall, 24 cm in diameter, nodes with prominent rings; internodes green, dull greyish-green when mature. Distribution: Native of China. Introduced in India.

PIeiobZastus simonii (Carr.) Nakai: A reed like Bamboo with long, creeping rhizome. Culms generally monopodial, 90 cm to 6 m tall, 2-25 m broad, hollow, green, glabrous, below the nodes at first with powdery covering, then becoming glabrous. Distribution: Occurs in Tale Valley, Arunachal Pradesh, India 3000 m. China, Japan; also cultivated in Europe, South Korea and Argentina.

Pseudosasa japonica (Sieb. and Zucc. ex Steud.) Makino ex Nakai: English name: Yadake. Rhizome creeping. Culms erect, 2-5 m long, 5-15 mm in diameter, glabrous, tufted, usually branched in upper half. Distribution: This species is native to Japan and is largely cultivated in Botanical Gardens of this country particularly in Eastern Himalaya, Lloyd Botanical Garden, Darjeeling.

Pseudoxytenanthera bourdillonii (Gamble) Naithani: Vernacular Names: Mal. - Arambu; Tam. - Ponmungil. A moderate-sized rather straggling bamboo forming open clumps. Culms with long internodes. Flowering: Blatter (1929) mentioned its flowering during 1889. According to Brandis it flowers at long intervals. Distribution: Kerala; in hills between an altitude of 900-1500 m.

Pseudoxytenenathera monadelpha (Thw.) Soderstrom and Ellis: A small gregarious straggling or subscandent reed-like bamboo. Culms 3-3.5 m high, ca 2.5 cm in diameter, smooth, usually ending in a curved whip with small branchlets in verticels and very small leaves, branched from the base; leaf and flower bearing branches on the same culm; internodes 3045 cm long, rough, hairy when young. Flowering: Wight recorded its flowering in 1847 and 1851 from the Nilgiris; Beddome from Annamalais in 1865 and 1871, Clarke Coonoor in 1870, King from Ochterlong valley in 1878 and Gamble in 1883 and 1889 from various places. (Blatter 1929). Distribution: Andhra Pradesh (hills of Kurnool). Western Ghats (from Nilgiri Southwards, 1050- 1850 m).

Pseudoxytenanthera ritcheyi (Munro) Naithani: Local Names: Karnataka - Choomaree, Choua, Chiwa, Chiwan, Chawa; Maharashtra - Huda, Udhe, Manga, Tandali. A medium-sized strong bamboo. Culms 34.5 m high, nearly solid, densely covered with deciduous soft pale-yellow valvety tomentum; nodes prominent; internodes 3745 cm long, 2.5-3.5 cm in diameter. Flowering: According to Blatter (1929) this species flowered in 1852 in Kala Naddi, 1870 in Satara Ghat, 1884 and 1889 in North Kanara, 1892 in Mahabaleshwar and Ahmednagar. Distribution: Maharashtra, Karnataka and Kerala.

Pseudoxytenanthera stocksii (Munro) Naithani: Local Names: Maharashtra - Chivari, Mes; Karnataka: Konda, oor-shema. A medium-sized bamboo. Culms upto 9 m tall, glabrous, when young covered with dense white or grey deciduous tomentum; internodes 15-30 x 2.54 cm; branches few at the node. Flowering: It fowered during 1884 and 1889 in North Kanara (Blatter 1929). Distribution: Karnataka and Goa.

Schizostachyum arunachalensis Naithani: Vernacular/Local name: Adi and Hill Miri -Tuchur. A semiscandent bamboo about l0-15 m high. Culms at first erect and then branches pendulous; nodes swollen with thick 1 cm broad ring of brown hairs; internodes at base 20 cm long and upto 1 m long above, l0-12 cm in girth, smooth, dark green when young, turning yellow with age; wall 5-10 mm thick; branch bud (l0- 8) mm rounded at apex, keeled. Distribution: Arunachal Pradesh, India. Occurs in wet mountain slopes at an altitude of 300-700 m.

Schizostachytlm beddomei (Fischer) Majumdar: Tall semi-scandent bamboo. Culms 3-6 m high, 2.5-3.7 cm in diameter at first erect, afterwards supported by other forest trees and then branches pendulous, bright green; nodes marked by a ring; internodes 35-45 cm long, rough above and with a white band below the node; walls thin at most 4 mm in thickness. Flowering: Flowers at long intervals and dies down. Distribution: Southern part in Nilgiri and Travancore hills from 900-1500 m altitude.

Schizosfachyum brachycladum Kurz.: An arborescent bamboo of very peculiar habit. Culms 10-13 m in height with lateral branches very short and meagre, upto 1 m long. Distribution: Native of Malaya. Introduced in Calcutta Botanical Garden.

Schizosfachyum capifafutn (Munro) Majumdar: Vernacular/Local Names: Nepal Gape bans; Lepcha - Payong. A shrubby or sub-arborescent, semi-scandent bamboo. Culms 4-10 m long, green or yellow, pendulous over the branches of trees; nodes not prominent; internodes often 1 m long, 2.5-3 cm in diameter, wall 5-8 mm thick. Flowering: Seems to flower at very frequent intervals. Gamble (1896) stated, "Perhaps the real reason is that like Dendrocalamus sfuicfus, it flowers sporadically and then now and again, happened in my own observation in 1874, when large tract in the Chel and Neora valleys in Brit. Bhutan covered with this species died of and became the scence of a great conflagration in the following year. According to him it flowered during 1848, 1866,1869,1874,1878,1892 in Sikkim and during 1830, 1835, 1850, 1871-72 in Khasi hills, Meghalaya. Distribution: Arunachal Pradesh, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Nagaland, Sikkim, Bhutan.

Schizosfachyum capifafum (Munro) Majumdar var. decomposifum (Gamble) Majumdar: This variety differs from C. capifafum var. capifafum in spikelets arranged in spicate almost paniculate clusters with many fertile spikelets. Distribution: Sikkim and Meghalaya.

Schizosfachyum dullooa (Gamble) Majumdar: Vernacular /Local names: Assam - Dullooa; Lepcha - Puksalu; Meghalaya - Wadroo. Moderate sized to large, tufted bamboo, sometimes scandent. Culms variable in size, 6-9 m tall and 2.5-7.5 cm in diameter, dark green with a few white hairs, whitish below the nodes glossy when dry; nodes slightly prominent; internodes 40-75 cm, sometimes upto 1 m long with thin walls. Distribution: North-eastern region in Assam, Meghalaya.

Schizosfachyum flavescens (Kurz) Majumdar: An evergreen, tufted, semi-arborescent bamboo. Culms 3-6 m high, dull green, turning yellow, smooth; nodes not prominent; internodes long, 2.5-3.8 cm in diameter. Distribution: Andaman Islands.

Schizosfachyum fuchsianum (Gamble) Majumdar: Vernacular/Local name: Lepcha -Palom. A medium sized, arborescent, semiscandent bamboo. Culm 5 m, green or pale, soft, thin walled; nodes prominent, verticillately branched; internodes greyish near nodes, 80 cm - 1 m x 2- 6 cm. Flowering: Blatter (1929) mentioned its flowering during 1875,1877,1880 and 1892 from Daphla hills, Arunachal Pradesh. Bor (1940) stated that it flowered in the Naga hills in 1935. Distribution: Arunachal Pradesh, Manipur, Nagaland and Sikkim.

Schizosfachyum griffifhii (Munro) Majumdar: Straggling or sub-erect. Culms erect at first afterwards drooping, 7.5-15 m long, verticillately branched from the nodes; internodes 45-65 cm long, 1.5-2.0 cm in diameter, scabrous above walls 5 mm thick. Distribution: North-eastern region in Khasi hills (Meghalaya) and Sibsagar and Dibrugarh (Assam).

Schizosfachyum helferi (Munro) Majumdar: Vernacular/Local names: Meghalaya - Wali; Garo - Tumoh. Evergreen tufted bamboo forming large impenetrable thickets, sometimes scandent. Culms 6-12 m high and 2.5-3.6 cm in diameter, spreading in all directions, greyish-green to green when young, much arched so as to bend completely and touch the ground where they take roots; nodes somewhat inflated and whitish; internodes 0.5- 1.25 m long or even more, velvety pubescent in the upper part when young, with a white band when old, walls-thin. Flowering: 1888 in Jaintia Hills and then died down. Distribution: Northeastern region, Meghalaya in Khasi and Jaintia Hills.

Schizosfachyum kurzii (Munro) Majumdar: An arborescent, evergreen, tufted bamboo. Culms 5- 8 m high, 8-10 cm in diameter, green, glossy; nodes not thickened; internodes 45-60 cm long, wall very thin; branches 1 to 4 from each node; leaf-bearing below, flower-bearing above. Distribution: Andaman Islands, Myanmar.

Schizustachyum latifolium (Munro) Majumdar: A shrubby, scrambling bamboo. Culms 2-3 m tall, dark green, whitish below the nodes. Flowering: Blatter (1929) mentioned its flowering during 1835 and 1879 in Bhutan and during 1882 in Manipur. Distribution: Arunachal Pradesh, North Bengal, Sikkim, Manipur, Bhutan.

Schizostachyum mannii Majumdar: Shrubs, branches tufted. Culm sheaths triangular, deciduous, fragile; blade inflated at base, fragile. Distribution: Northeast India. Schizostachyum pallidum (Munro) Majumdar: Vernacular/Local name: Beetee bans. A shrubby or small arborescent bamboo. Culms no more than 2 m tall. Flowering: Gamble (1896) mentioned its flowering during 1835,1872,1878 and 1885-1886. Distribution: Arunachal Pradesh, Manipur and Meghalaya.

Schizostachyum pergracile (Munro) Majumdar: Vernacular/Local names: Madhya Pradesh -Bhalan bans; Assam - Madang; Manipur - Wootang; Nagaland - Latang; Orissa - Dangi. A deciduous, arborescent, tufted bamboo. Culms l0-30 m tall, erect, glaucous-green, somewhat whitish-puberulous below the nodes; nodes scarcely thickened; internodes 3045 x 5-7.5 cm, wall very thin. Flowering: This species often flowers sporadically and occasionally flowers gregariously over extensive areas. Troup (1921) mentioned its gregarious flowering from Myanmar in Tharrawaddy during 1865, 1875- 1876, 1887-1888, 1894-1895 and 1913-1914; in Pyinmana during 1899-1900 and 1906-1908; in Upper Chidwin, Myettha and Katha during 1900- 1907 and 1913-1914; in Shwegyin during 1902- 1903, 1914-1915 and 1915-1916; in Myitkyina during 1904-1906; in Toungoo during 1907-1909; in Honzada during 1907-1909; in Bassein during 1912-1913, parts of Zigon, Rangoon during 1913- 1914 in Nyaunglebin during 1915-1917 in southern Shan state during 1915-1916 and in Mansi Forest Division during 1916-1917. Ellis (1907) reported its gregarious flowering in Gwethe and Kabaung Reserve of Toungoo Division, Myanmar during 1907. In India it flowered in Dibrugarh (Assam) in 1936 (Bor, 1940). Bahadur and Naithani (1976) have mentioned its gregarious flowering in Dehra Dun during 1972. Distribution: Assam, Manipur, Nagaland, Bihar, Orissa, Madhya Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh, Burma.

Schizostachyum polymorphum (Munro) Majumdar: Vernacular/Local names: Assam -Bajal, nal, tolli; Garo wachall; Lepcha Purphiok, paphak; Nepalese - Pheling, filing. Bamboo with single culms from a long creeping, jointed rhizome. Culms 15-20 m tall, thick-walled, 3-3.5 cm in diameter; internodes 20-23 cm long, glaucous in the beginning, afterwards dark green. Flowering: This species flowers frequently and has been reported from Sikkim during the year 1857 (Blatter 1930). Mohan Ram and Gopal (1981) reported its sporadic flowering in the state of Mizoram during 1978-79. They believe that the nonavailability or insufficiency of pollen for cross pollination may result in poor seed production of this species. The flowers are found very often diseased. Distribution: North Bengal, Sikkim, Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Mizoram, Nagaland, Manipur and Meghalaya upto 1000 m. Outside India this species is found in Nepal, Bhutan and Myanmar.

Schizostachyum rogersii Brandis: Culms tufted weak, upto 9 m high and 1.9 cm in diameter, overhanging or supported by trees, walls thin. India: Andamans (G. Rogers). However, Parkinson (1.c) seems to have neither collected this bamboo himself nor could he see any other collection from this area, hence it is on the basis of Brandis report.

Schizostachyum seshagirianum Majumdar: Scandent shrubs with tufted branches. Distribution: Arunachal Pradesh.

Semiarundinaria pantlingii (Gamble) Nakai: Local name: Sikkim-Bhutan border - Nigale, maling. An erect bamboo, caespitose, shrubby. Culm ca 6 m long, ca 1.5 cm diameter, smooth; internode ca 14 cm long, thin-walled; node prominent, bears a softly hairy ring formed by the base of the fallen sheath. Flowering: Rare. Reported flowering dates are - Sikkim 1895,1897, 1932; W. Bengal 1968. Distribution: Northeast India -Arunachal Pradesh, Sikkim, West Bengal (North Bengal). Distributed mostly in sub alpine zone. It grows in mountain slopes especially with rocks, and as forest undergrowth in Abies, Betula and Rhodendron forests. It often forms almost pure stands.

Sinarundinaria longispiculata Chao and Renvoize: A reed-like bamboo with erect culm; internodes glabrous; nodes yellowish-velvety. Flowering: From Lushai Hills, Mizoram, flowering material was collected by Rup Chand in 1953. Distribution: Mizoram (Lushai Hills) at an elevation of 1300 m. The species appears to be endemic to Mizoram.

Sinobambusa elegans (Kurz) Nakai: Local name:Naga Hills - Jilli. An evergreen shrubby bamboo, slender, tufted. Culm ca 6 m in height, ca 0.7 cm in diameter, flattened on one side in alternate joints, blackish; internode ca 22.5 cm long, smooth, node prominent, somewhat raised, branchlets 3. Flowering: Probably very rare. Naga Hills - Bor in 1937. Distribution: Northeast India -Arunachal Pradesh, Nagaland. This species is rare and highly threatened (Bahadur and Jain, 1981).

Thamnocalamus aristatus (Gamble) Camus: Local name: Sikkim - Babain, babam; Darjeeling -Rato- nigala, pat-hioo. A shrubby bamboo, erect, caespitose. Culm ca 4 m high, ca 1.5 cm in diameter, glaucous green with white-scurf when young becoming yellow with age; internode ca 10 cm long, striate, pubescent, walls hard; node not much swollen, with straw-coloured loose by sheath. Flowering: Usually flowers gregariously. Recorded flowering dates are: Sikkim - Kurz in 1868, Clarke in 1869, Gamrnie in 1890 and Pantling in 1895; Darjeeling in 1949-50. Naithani and Biswas 1990 reported its gregarious flowering in Sikkim Himalayas for 1989-90. Distribution: North-East India - Arunachal Pradesh, Sikkim, West Bengal. Grows in the moist mountain slopes and ravines, mostly under broken forest cover.

Thamnocalamus spathiflorus (Trin.) Munro: Local Name: Hindi - Ringal, nigal; Garhwal - Tham, tham- ringal, parikh, deo-ningal. A densely tufted shrubby bamboo, erect. Culm ca 6 m in height and 2 cm in diameter, fistular, smooth, glaucous green when young, shining yellow with age; internode ca 25 cm long, striate; nodes much raised, dark coloured, marked by a ring formed by the scars of the fallen sheath; branchlets chiefly from the upper nodes. Flowering: Usually flowers gregariously. Recorded flowering dates are - 1818- 21 by Wallich from N.W.Himalaya, 1863-66 by Gamble, 1881-82 by Brandis from Jaunsar, 1892- 93 by Gamble from Jaunsar, 1902 by Collett from Himachal Pradesh and in 1942 by Raizada from Chakrata forest. Distribution: North-west India -Uttar Pradesh (Kumaon and Garhwal Hills); Himachal Pradesh (Simla). Grows gregariously as a common undergrowth of evergreen coniferous forest. This species is also found in a variety of forest types.

Thyrsostachys oliveri Gamble: A large tufted handsome bamboo. Culms straight, 15-25 m high, ca 5 cm in diameter, bright green with whitish silky surface when young, dull green or yellowish on maturity; nodes hardly thickened; internodes 40- 60 cm long, thin-walled; branches fascicled at the nodes, lower ones ascending and upper ones horizontal. Flowering: Reported from Myanmar in 1891; from Dehra Dun, from Haldwani in 1962- 63 and in 1986-87. Distribution: Native of Myanmar. Planted in Calcutta Botanic Garden, at Dehra Dun and Haldwani in Uttar Pradesh and at Chessa in Arunachal Pradesh. Plants may also be found in some other places of India (Bennet and Gaur, 1990).

Thyrsostachys regia (Munro) Bennet: English names: Monastery Bamboo, Umbrella-handle Bamboo. A very graceful tufted bamboo. Culms commonly 8-10 m high and 4-5 cm in diameter, straight, thick-walled, base usually covered with the persistent culm-sheaths; nodes hardly thickened with a white band below; internodes 20-30 cm long, green. Flowering: Reported from Calcutta Botanic Garden in 1892; from Dehra Dun in 1941 and in 1989. Distribution: Thailand and Myanmar. Cultivated in Malaya, India and China. It was introduced to Calcutta Botanic Garden before 1892 and in Rangers College Campus, Dehra Dun, before 1941.

Herbarium Bogoriense

Publishing Biology-LIPI Bogor,

Indonesia

Bamboo, as one of the non-wood forest product, is very important in rural areas. Liese (1992) estimated that about 2.5 billion people depend on or use bamboo materials including Indonesians. Indonesia is one of the bamboo-producing countries where the population is dense and major deforestation is taking place. As a result, many species are threatened and wild genepools of potential valuable species are being lost. Due to the large size of the country, many areas have not yet been explored. Therefore it will not be surprising if new information on bamboo diversity will be gathered when remote areas will be surveyed in future. The conservation of bamboo genetic resources is absolutely fundamental to the long term success of biodiversity conservation. Information on diversity and distribution is also essential for the sustainable management of bamboo stands. Information on genetic variation within species and their local population is also essential for the conservation of genetic resources. This information is very limited or does not exist at present.

In situ conservation has been established in many areas not only because of bamboo resources present there, but also other important species that need to be protected. The ex situ conservation areas have been established to prevent rapid deterioration of the genetic resources. So far conservation work is at the species level and not for genepool conservation.

In 1980, Widjaja estimated about 65 species of bamboo in Indonesia including the introduced species. These data were put together after a thorough literature study on Indonesian bamboos. Based on this study it was recorded that, before 1990, there were 54 species of 11 genera in Indonesia. After a three-year study funded by IDRC it was recorded that there were 125 bamboos species of 19 genera in Indonesia (Table 1) including six new genera. Some of the species names need revision.

The bamboo flora is rich and diverse and needs more intensive study. Many are new species. Some species such as Schizostachyum terminale (Widjaja 1994c), Schizosfachyum grande and Gigantochloa scortechinii are new records for Indonesia and also new information for bamboo world. Now it is known that 14 species of 125 are introduced ones. Most of them were introduced a long time ago probably in 1920 from Japan and China such as Bambzrsa multiplex, Phyllostachys awea, Ph. nigra and Schibataea kwnasaca. Other species such as Thyrsostachys siamensis, Dendrocalamus latiflonrs and Bambzlsa oldhamii were introduced before 1980. The first mentioned bamboo is very popular as an ornamental plant and the last two species are introduced for shoot production purposes.

The diversity of bamboo in Indonesia is very unique, because many species are endemic such as Nas tus elegantissimus, N. reholl tumianus, N. schnmtzii etc. Other common bamboos such as black bamboo (Gigan tochloa a troviolacea), which is well known to Javanese and Sundanese, are found only in Java. If this species now grows in other islands, it has been brought there by the Javanese during transmigration. The black variety of Dendrocalanztrs asper is only found in the rural area between Wonosobo and Yogyakarta, Central Java. Another black bamboo (Bambusa sp. 6) well known to Americans and Australians, is originally from East Timor. This bamboo is getting scarce in its area of origin and is difficult to find. In Table 2 it can be seen that 77 species out of 125 are endemic to Indonesia, almost 60%. Many of them grow naturally in the nature reserves or protected areas as shown in the table. Although many species are grown in the protected areas, many are present in open places, except the climbing bamboo which would grow on the trees. Some species grow naturally in the disturbed forest or marginal land even along the river bank.

After three years of study, it is concluded Sumatra still has the highest number of the endemic bamboo species (36%) followed by Irian Jaya (28%) (Widjaja 1994a). The rate of endemism is correlated to the fact that Sumatra has the highest number of bamboo species (Widjaja 1994b) and ranks third in species richness and species endemism in Indonesia (KLH 1992). The high number of endemism in Irian Jaya is not surprising because about 90% of New Guinean flora is endemic (Davis et al. 1986), beside Irian Jaya also has the highest plant species richness and species endemism in Indonesia.

So far there has been no study on the genetic variation of Indonesian bamboos. Based on the experience in the field, it is recorded that Dendrocalamus asper has five different varieties. Morphological variation can be detected regarding leaf hairs, culm hairs, culm thickness and size, shoot taste. In Gigantochloa atter, the variations occur in their culm hairs, culm color, culm thickness and size, shoot color, and size. There are at least three varieties of G. atter. The popular bamboo that grows widespread in subtropical countries, Bambusa vulgaris var. vulgaris, has three varieties. A prominent variation can be seen in culm morphology of Gigantochloa hasskarliana. This species shows two culm colors, i.e., green culm and spotted culm when old. Genetic variations among bamboo appears to be very high, especially when they are propagated by seed. Gigantochloa pseudoarundinacea normally does not produce seeds in Indonesia. This phenomenon is also true with Dendrocalamus asper a n d Dendrocalamus latiflorus. However, rarely Gigantochloa pseudoarundinacea flowers and produces seeds. New plants produced are different from the parent. The culm belongs to Gigan tochloa pseudoarundinacea but the leaves resemble Dendrocalamus latiflorus and the budding character is similar to D. asper. The same features will be occurring in plants developed from seeds of D. asper and D. latijflorus. The plants produced from D. asper seeds show shoot and leaf characters close to D. latiflorus, but the shoot is hairy like D. asper. Although Bambusa blumeana also flowers at the same time, it seems that this species cannot hybridize easily with the above three species. Variations as variegated leaves can sometimes be observed in plants of the above species. Further study on the genetic variation of the Indonesian bamboos should be done.

The erosion of genetic diversity in less important bamboos is often hardly noticed, because they are mostly found in the wild. The genetic erosion easily takes place when the areas are meant for mining, housing, agriculture or industries. No study is done on bamboos before the bamboo vegetation in the particular areas are cleared for other kinds of land development. The potential bamboos have similar problem like the non-potential one, but in several areas people protected the potential bamboos that are important to meet the needs in their daily life. People have selected the most useful bamboos for their daily use. The loss of genetic variation is sometimes difficult to detect, especially when there is no record of the previous diversity that exisited and varieties present in those areas. Potential bamboos and their genetic erosion is shown in Table 3. The genetic erosion is scored from 1 to 5,l being very low genetic erosion (score l), and 5, very high genetic erosion. The genetic erosion may occur due to various reasons. Recently some attempts have been made to conserve the bamboo genetic resources, but much more needs to be done to conserve genetic diversity whether the plants are from natural or man made ecosystems.

Diversity of bamboos in Indonesia is also influenced by introduced species which are mostly planted in botanical gardens and then escape to cultivations or natural habitats. Phyllostachys aurea is one such example. It was introduced to Cibodas Botanical Gardens in 1920, but has since been planted in Merapi Mountains. Therefore, this species is now growing naturally in that habitat. The same is true with Chimonobambusa marmorea that was also planted in Cibodas Botanical Gardens. These bamboos escaped from the plantation into the national park close by. In fact some of the introduced species are now used more by the public as ornamentals than the native species. It is proposed that some of the native species should replace the introduced species before they start growing too widely  

Very little is known on the reproductive behaviour of bamboo in Indonesia, and only few reports are published. As mentioned above flowering is very scarce, and only some unimportant bamboo species produce seeds regularly such as Schizostachyum gracile. A species like Gigantochloa apus which is very important, flowers irregularly and produces seeds. Variation within species and populations exists as mentioned before, but detailed studies need to be done.

Selection of superior populations and even within populations is needed. However, the selection can not be done for all species. Therefore, at the outset a selection of potential bamboo species in the country should be determined. It is possible that bamboo species for each area will be very specific and will vary in different areas in Indonesia. After information on potential bamboos has been collected, a variety of populations for each species has to be selected. The local people have more information on which population is suitable for specific purposes. The Javanese for example like to use culms of Gigantochloa apus for handicraft which grow on the slopes rather than in the valley or the river banks. In Bali people do not like to eat betung biasa prefer betung manis, because betung manis is sweeter than betung biasa. This kind of information needs to be collected from the local people and documented.

Species hybridization in bamboos is common when several species of one genus or closely related genera are in flower at the same time and place as explained before. However, no study on genetic variation of hybrids and their parents has been done. A proper design for a field trial is needed in order to separate genetic factors from environmental factors. Field trials are space and time consuming and costly, especially if they have to be repeated on several sites in order to investigate genotype-environment interactions. Early testing can some times indicate variation and interaction. This early testing can also be done in vitro, in growth chamber, in green house or in nursery. Finkeldey (1995) suggested to use genetic markers and quantitative trait studies for identifying genetic variation patterns and their determinants in order to improve conservation of plant genetic resources.

Indonesia is one of the richest countries in biodiversity in the world. It covers 1.3% of the earth’s surface and contains 10% of the world’s flowering plants, 12% of the world’s mammals, 15% of the world’s reptiles and amphibians, 17% of all birds and more than a quarter of all marine and freshwater fish. Many Indonesia’s biological resources are economically important such as bamboo used for food, handicrafts, fuel, medicine, rituals and building materials. Many people that live in and around the forests are directly dependent on the natural resources. However, the natural habitats and species are now depleting due to logging, mining, shifting agriculture and other changing land uses to meet the needs of the increasing population. Recognizing the need to conserve its rich biological resources, the Government of Indonesia has agreed to protect 10% of the land area (about nineteen million hectares) as protected areas. The protected areas in Indonesia are divided into ten categories: national park, nature reserve, recreation park, game reserve, hunting reserve, grand forest park, marine nature reserve, marine recreation park, marine game reserve and marine national park.

The Director General of Forest Protection and Nature Conservation (PHPA), Department of Forestry manages these conservation areas and two directorates are specifically concerned: a. Directorate of Nature Conservation is responsible for overall planning of the protected areas, drafting conservation legislation, and proposing, establishing and managing individual protected areas; b. The Directorate of National Parks and Recreation Forests deal specifically with the national parks programmes. The grand forest park is also under Department of Forestry. This grand forest park is a nature conservation area intended to provide a variety of indigenous and/or introduced plants and animals for research, education, breeding enhancement, culture, recreation and tourism purposes. Beside these reserve areas, another 30.3 million hectares have been designated as protection forest, covering watershed and steep slopes (BAPPENAS 1991).

Beside in situ conservation, there are also ex situ conservation areas that several government institutions, private foundations and private industry manage. The ex situ conservation areas occuring in Indonesia are as follows: (Map 2)

1. The grand forest park under Ministry of Forestry 2. General germplasm gardens: Botanic Garden of PUSPITEK, Serpong, under Ministry of State for Research and Technology, Cibinong under the Indonesian Institute of Sciences and Perhutani under Ministry of Forestry. 3. Botanical Gardens (Bogor, Cibodas, Purwodadi, Ekakarya) under the Indonesian Institute of Sciences. 4. University Botanical Gardens (Gadjah Mada University, Bogor Agriculture Institute and University Indonesia) under Ministry of Education and Culture. 5. Medicinal plant gardens (Tawangmangu and Lido) under Ministry of Health. 6. Specific germplasm gardens (coconut at Bone-bone and Mapanget, fruits at Paseh-Subang, manggo at Grati and rubber at Sungai Putih) under Ministry of Agriculture. 7. Botanic gardens under private sectors (Indonesian Miniature, Wiladatika, GGPC, EBF). (Map 2)

It has been established that these ex situ conservation areas conserve the biodiversity and serve the research and development strategy for plant genetic resources. Nevertheless, these areas cannot be representative for all genetic diversity in Indonesia. Because of that, establishment of more ex situ conservation areas are still needed.

Bamboo is a natural resource in Indonesia that grows wildly and is widespread in the country. Thirty three percent of the Indonesian endemic bamboo species grow in the natural habitat of protected areas. More than 75% of the native Indonesian bamboo species also grow naturally in the protected areas and in other natural habitats. In Table 4 the number of species occuring in the protected areas have been listed. Inventories have been made only for some of them. Some potential bamboo populations in those protected areas have been recorded. A study on bamboo population density should be made, but first a special method for an aerial survey has to be developed, because many bamboo species in Indonesia grow under the giant trees, and some of them grow scrambling and climbing between trees. The endemic species found in the protected areas such as Batnbusa cornuta in Meru Betiri National Park, Dinochloa kostermansiana in Ruteng, Racemobambos ceramic in Manusela National Park etc. Bambusa cornuta originally grown in many different forests in East Java, is now depleted due to habitat disturbance, logging and changing habitat. Dendrocalamus sp. 1 grows only in Sipirok Nature Reserve, and this species is disturbed by the road development into the inside area. The depletion of endemic bamboos is common in Dendrocalamus sp. 2 growing in Bukit Barisan National Park and Dendrocalamus sp. 3 growing in Desa Pinggir Nature Reserve. Both species grow along the road, so that the disturbance from the local people is common but not as strong as that of the important bamboo such as Dendrocalamus asper. The important endemic bamboos in East Java are collected by the local people to meet the demand of the chopstick and toothpick industries. Gigantochloa manggong that grows naturally in Meru Betiri National Park, Nastus elegantissimus, and Racemobambos raynalii that grow in G. Tilu Nature Reserve and Lorentz Nature Reserve respectively, are also collected by the local people. The culm recovery for these species is, however, faster than culms collected, so they are still in good condition. A study by Widjaja (1990) on population density of Nastus eleganfissimus has confirmed this observation. So far there is no specific in situ conservation area that has been chosen for bamboo protection. Based on the data in table 4, it can be seen that Kerinci-Seblat National Park has the highest number of bamboo species (seventeen species) growing followed by Meru Betiri National Park (twelve species), G. Sago Malintang Nature Reserve (eleven species) and Alas Purwo National Park (ten species). Based on the number of endemic species found in these protected areas, it is suggested that Kerinci-Seblat (five endemic species) is an unique area for protection of endemic bamboos followed by Lorentz Nature Reserve (four endemic species) and Meru Betiri National Park (three endemic species). The population density of bamboos in these protected areas has never been studied, but based on field experiences it can be recorded that Kerinci-Seblat, Alas Purwo and Meru Betiri has the largest number of bamboo populations. It is also suggested that Kerinci-Seblat, Lorentz and Meru Betiri can be used for bamboo in situ conservation. However, this suggestion is not enough to assure the genepool conservation because many species grow endemically in certain areas also outside the protected areas. (Map 2)

Indonesian bamboos are more distinct than those in other parts of the world. This is because of the large variation in climate, soil, temperature and rainfall throughout Indonesia. The bamboos in the western part of Indonesia are more distinct species than the bamboos growing in the eastern part of Indonesia. The western Indonesia has more of big sized bamboos. The central part of the country has smaller sized and in the eastern part, the bamboos are even smaller. Dendrocalamus asper, Bambusa vulgaris and Gigantochloa atter are exceptions as they grow well in all parts of the country. Therefore, when in situ conservation areas are established in the west of Indonesia, many of the genepools in eastern Indonesia will not be covered. Also many species grow naturally in habitats outside protected forests or grow endemic in those areas. Besides many of the lowland bamboos are different from the mountain bamboos. The lowland bamboos mostly belong to genera Bambusa, Gigantochloa, Dendrocalamus and Schizostachyum, whereas the mountain bamboos belong to Nastus and Racemobambos. Therefore, in situ conservation areas need to be established in two localities: lowland and mountain. G. Lorentz Nature Reserve can be used as mountain in situ conservation, but still many mountain species which grow endemically in the natural habitat at the northern part of G. Lorentz are not found in the reserve.

The flowering behavior of Indonesians bamboo is very unique, i.e. not all species can produce flowers and or when species are in flower in west Indonesia, they are not in flower in east Indonesia or vice versa. Based on experience in the field, only some species of bamboo produce flowers continuously such as Schizostachyum brachycladum, S. latifolium, Bambusa atra. Most of the Indonesian species rarely flower, for eg., Bambusa vulgaris, Dendrocalamus asper, Gigan tochloa pseudoarundinacea, and even after flowering they do not produce seeds, except some species such as Nastus elegantissimus, Schizostachyum caudatum, S. gracile, Gigan tohloa apus, which produce seeds continuously. The plants in GGPC Garden that produce seeds are abnormal for Indonesian conditions because these species have never been reported producing seeds before. In fact these species are having cross and natural hybridization with other species blooming at the same time (between Gigantochloa pseudoarundinacea, Dendrocalamus asper and D. latiflorus). Like in other countries, several bamboo species in Indonesia die after blooming, example Bambusa blumeana that grows naturally in Eastern Indonesia. Because of the above reproductive characteristics choosing any protected forest as representative for collecting seeds and planting materials is difficult.

Table 4 lists the species that grow in many protected areas. There are many species such as Dendrocalamus asper, Bambusa vulgaris, Bambusa blumeana, Schizostachyum brachycladum, Schizostachyum iraten and Schizostachyum lima that grow commonly in many places from West to East and outside protected areas. Some taxonomic confusion has yet to be solved in the Schizostachyum iraten-blumei-lima-glauc-olium-lumampao complex.

It has been recorded that if a production forest with only a few bamboo populations is logged the whole forest floor will be covered with bamboo seedlings after logging. In Sumatra, elephants are found in abundance where bamboo forests occur. Therefore the local people usually are very careful when passing through a bamboo forest. It has been observed that elephants eat the young bamboo culms or bamboo shoots, but the elephant also sometimes eats slightly older bamboo culms until mouth starts bleeding. There are however, no further studies on the relationship between bamboo and elephants.

Although Indonesia has seven ex situ conservation areas as mentioned earlier, only few of them conserve bamboo such as botanical gardens, university gardens (IPB), general germplasm gardens (PUSPIPTEK, Serpong), Department Forestry’ arboreta (Arcamanik and Perhutani). To secure the bamboo diversity in the rural area as well as in other habitats (unprotected areas), ex situ conservation has been established. There are 4 botanical gardens in Indonesia, i.e., Bogor Botanical Garden (in Bogor), Cibodas Botanical Garden (in Cibodas about 40 km south of Bogor), Purwodadi Botanical Garden (Purwodadi, about 10 km from Lawang) and Ekakarya Botanical Garden (Bedugul about 50 km north of Denpasar). These botanical gardens are managed under the Indonesian Botanical Gardens based in Bogor and this institute is under the Indonesian Institute of Sciences. The botanical gardens not only conserve bamboos, but also other trees, shrubs and exchange germplasm with other institutions around the world. Indonesian Botanical Gardens have a long history on bamboo conservation. It was started during visit by Kurz to Bangka and Banten in 1860. He brought back several living plants and donated them to Bogor Botanical Garden. Since then several exchanges have been made and exotic species have been introduced into the garden. One living collection that was collected by Kurz and still is found in the garden, is Gigantochloa hasskarliana. After that many bamboos as well as other trees have been collected during plant explorations in order to conserve Indonesian flora. Arboreta that conserve bamboo at this time are Perhutani in Haur Bentes, IPB (Bogor Agriculture Institute) in Bogor , Arcamanik under the Forest Research Institute located at Bandung, GGPC (a private business in Lampung), EBF (Environment Bamboo Foundation in Ubud, Bali) and Botanic Gardens of PUSPIPTEK, Serpong. The living plants in Perhutani, IPB, GGPC, EBF and PUSPIPTEK are mostly donated by Widjaja between 1991- 1994, after the bamboo germplasm explorations funded by IDRC were completed. Many bamboo collections in Indonesian Botanical Gardens are also donated by Widjaja between 1991 - 1994. The number of species growing in those botanical gardens and arboreta are shown in table 4. Based on this table it can be seen that Indonesia has 141 species of bamboos growing in natural habitats, cultivation and ex situ conservation areas. Sixteen species grow only in the botanical gardens and most of them are exotic species and some of them have never been introduced to public places. The ex situ conservation areas are mostly meant for species conservation purposes and not for germplasm collecting. Although series of plants of each population is planted in GGPC, the number of plants propagated either by vegetative parts or by seed have not met the standard for germplasm collection. Therefore, a study on the bamboo germplasm living collection is necessary. Based on table 4 it can be seen that the bamboo collection in GGPC is more complete than the collections in botanical gardens or in any arboreta. This is because that GGPC has given ten hectares of the area for establishment of the bamboo collection. They have introduced seven species from other countries, and the remaining are Indonesian bamboos. It is necessary to have an ex situ conservation area under a government institution as well. However various institutions need financial support to run, maintain and protect the conserved bamboos. (Map 3)

Documentation of existing in situ and ex situ conservation areas has been done in several ways depending on the institution responsible for such areas. There is no documentation for in situ conservation areas except publications and reports. However, the Department of Forestry is documenting the existing date in the form of in situ conservation documentation by using computer and as part of Forestry II Project. When this data have been accumulated, a map of Indonesian conservation areas can be published. On-going project in Halimun National Park has just been started by collaboration between the National Park and R & D in Biology-LIP1 to document all the natural resources and is going to overlay with geographic areas by using GIS system, soil characterization and etc. This pilot project aims to establish a biodiversity information system for Indonesia.

The data on ex situ conservation areas and botanical gardens have been recorded using computer. IPB arboretum has also documented their bamboo collection in the computer. This system will be used by the Department of Forestry for database of Indonesian bamboo in the future.

In the meantime, a database of Indonesian bamboo based on herbarium specimens and field notes has been established. Each bamboo species has been described by using DELTA programme and an interactive key is going to be generated. A distribution map of each species has been developed by using KORT programme. When this is ready a picture of each species will be printed to make it easy to use.

Conservation of bamboo diversity is an extremely complex task. There is a need to save what exists and to use them sustainably. The techniques, strategies, tactics and technologies to be used are however neither fully developed nor tested and they need to be adapted to local conditions. The local people who live around the reserve areas should be involved in the conservation programme, so that they will not only use the bamboo culms but also participate in conservation activities. Therefore a good strategy should be developed to integrate conservation and development.

Feasiblity studies show that for an in situconservation and development project, several million dollars are required. About seven million people will be affected. This figure will meet the costs of designing and implementing ten national parks (on the scale of G. Leuser and Kerinci-Seblat) for the next ten years. When the project is implemented, it is necessary to have basic operational expenses for habitat management, zone development, research and development, training and education. KLH (1992) has estimated that the project cost for G. Lorentz Nature Reserve is 618125 thousand dollars for 10 years and for Kerinci-Seblat it is 425 823 thousand’s dollars (about US$ 28/ha/yr). The Indonesian Government has budgeted US$0.35/ha/yr for the investment in Indonesian conservation areas. Including several involvements of other institutions and NGO’s, it can be concluded that Indonesia is presently spending on average about US$0.75/ha/yr for the Indonesian conservation area system. When the protection is more effective, much higher than average rates of expenditure are involved, for example in Gede-Pangrango about US$ 7.94/ha/yr. In Thailand average rates of expenditure on conservation areas are about US$ 1.8/ha/yr (Dixon & Sherman 1990), and in China it is about US $3 - 3.4 /ha/yr (ERL 1991). If these rates are applied, then bamboo conservation in Kerinci-Seblat will need about 2.7 million dollars per yr using the Thailand rates or five million dollars per year if Chinese rates are used. For G. Lorentz, the estimated budget will double because the area is bigger and difficult to visit. Based on the above figures, it can be concluded that conserving bamboo in in situ conservation is very expensive. Nevertheless, this expenditure can become less when bamboo conservation is combined with overall conservation programme in the reserve areas.

It has been estimated that ex situ conservation expenditure for existing germplasm, (collecting, storing, maintaining and documenting) will be about US$50/samp’le/yr. The field gene bank and tissue culture bank will cost about US $1.8 million/year. On-farm conservation will cost US$ 1.8 million/yr, research US$ 5.1 million/ yr, training US$ 1.2 million/yr and public awareness and education US$ 2.4 million/yr. If Indonesia is needed to provide storage facilities for one million unique samples, this will involve US$ 75 million, followed by a current spending commitment of the national strategy of about US$ 62.3 million/yr. Current expenditure levels on ex situ conservation in Indonesia is about US$ 16 million/yr including zoological inventory programmes. INBio suggested a budget of US$ 22 million for personnel, training, transport, equipment, supplies, office infrastructure and overheads to bring 500000 species into inventory standard for ex situ conservation programmes. To have such an exercise in Indonesia, at least US$ 5 million is needed per biogeographical region per year. Based on the experience on bamboo inventory in Indonesia, US$50,000 is needed for three years, this is not including planting, sorting, maintaining and documenting existing bamboo collection. The expenditures for planting and maintaining will depend on the institutions who may carry out the bamboo conservation program.

In Indonesia, the traditional method for producing planting material for bamboos is by vegetative propagation. Many techniques have been developed such as rhizome planting, culm cutting, branch cutting, layering/marcotting and macroproliferation. There are some studies on bamboo tissue culture (embryo) of the endemic species (Schizostachywn catrdatum), but this programme is not continued due to lack of funding. Beside that the endemic bamboo used is not economically important. A study on meristem tissue culture of Gigantochloa apzrs is being carried out in Indonesia. For mass propagation of pilot trials or plantation programmes, vegetative propagation method is used. For these purposes some bamboo nurseries need to be established when the national programme on several bamboo trials or plantations will become effective. As mentioned above, local people sometimes collect bamboos from the in situ conservation areas, but no effort has been made to prevent this practice, because bamboo’s economic benefits are still little known to the conservationist. This situation occurred with rattan a long time ago, when rattan still could be collected easily. Now programme is needed to prevent the loss of populations or their genetic diversity. So far there is no data on threatened or endangered bamboos except the endemic bamboos listed in Table 2. The only solution to control bamboo collecting from the in situ conservation areas is to request the local people surrounding the reserve area to participate in the conservation programme. Beside the industries who use bamboos as raw material should establish bamboo gardens either as people’s garden, or concenssion garden for forest production. Raw material collected from other protected areas should be made illegal. When the private industry gives bamboo plantlets and fertilizer to the local people, the industry should make an agreement with local people that their bamboo will be bought by the industries. Beside the industry together with the local institutes should train the local people on how to manage the bamboo plantations. The industry should follow the government programme on cleaner production by harvesting the bamboo on sustainable basis. When they do not harvest sustainably, the government should request the industry to stop their activities.

A national programme on bamboo genetic resources conservation and improvement is needed to select, protect, maintain and improve the potential bamboos as well as the not yet potential ones for the future. Before this programme can be run, it is necessary to know the biodiversity of species found in the country, their distribution and also the genetic diversity. After this information has been documented, the next step is to select the potential bamboos based on their uses. The bamboos that are not yet utilized should be recorded as germplasm resources for future improvement. When the potential bamboo has been documented their properties either at the species level or population level need to be studied for the development of the uses in the future. In order to meet these needs it will be necessary to have a strategy on the conservation and improvement of bamboo in the country.

After information on the species diversity of bamboo in Indonesia has been collected and the distribution of bamboos has been fully known, it will be necessary to study the genetic diversity of each species. To do this it is necessary to collect information on several bamboo populations and do an analysis of their genetic resources. These data will also be useful to improve bamboos. When the number of genepools of each population has been detected, a further step to conserve them needs to be taken. So far bamboo conservation is done only at the species level.

Conservation of bamboo in Indonesia can be done in 2 ways, firstly by improving the in situ conservation strategy not only for bamboos but also for flora and fauna in the reserve areas. Secondly, collecting propagules and planting them for ex situ conservation. For in situ conservation it is proposed to choose suitable areas for bamboo conservation based on the center of the origin of the bamboo species. Before an in situ conservation area is chosen, an inventory of each reserve area needs to be completed. Without this, the conservation area can not be proposed. It is proposed that ex situ conservation should have 2 different areas: lowland garden and highland garden. Although Indonesia already has several botanical gardens in the lowlands and the highlands, these areas are still not sufficient for bamboo germplasm collection and maintenance purposes.

When the funding for bamboo conservation and genetic diversity studies becomes available, many people will propose to do the work. However, there are only a few institutions that might be good for a team work, and producing results that can be used by other people, including scientists, private industries, and decision makers. A list of institutions is proposed:

1. FORTIP representative in indonesia

2. Directorate General of Forest Protection and Nature Conservation

3 . LIP1 (R & D Biology, R & D Geology)

4 . Botanical gardens and bamboo arboreta

5 . Bakosurtanal (areial survey)

6 . Forest Research Institute

7 . NGO

8 . Identified Private industry

Private industries who have an interest in bamboo conservation need to be included to get access to their germplasm collection for genetic improvement studies as well as to get a feed back from the industy on what kind of bamboos are needed for industrial purposes. The result of this work should benefit local people, scientists, industry and decision makers.

Estimated budget for bamboo conservation should be separated from budget for genetic studies since the work involves different institutions.

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Rifai, M. A. & E. A. Widjaja. 1990. Gatra Pengembangan Industri dan Kerajinanan Bambu. Perbindo, YPDKI, KPPNN, Dep. Perindustrian, Bogor.

Sastrapradja, S., E. A. Widjaja, S. Prawiroatmodjo and S. Soenarko. 1977. Beberapa jenis bambu. Proyek SDE LBN-LIPI, Bogor.

Soeprayitno, T., T.L. Tobing and E. A. Widjaja. 1990. Why the Sundanese of West Java prefer slope-inhabiting Gigantochloa psetldoartmdinacea to those growing in the valley. Pp. 215-217 in Bamboo Current Research. (IV. R. Rao, R. Gnanaharan and C.B. Sastry, eds.). IDRC, Singapore.

Tabrani, G.; A. Setiawan & E. A. Widjaja. 1989. Anatomi buluh jenis-jenis Schizostachyunr koleksi Kebun Raya Bogor. Floribunda 1(12):45-48.

Widjaja, E. A. 1977. Identitas bambu yang dipakai dalam dunia permusikan di Jawa Barat. Ber. Biol. 2(2):39.

Widjaja, E.A. 1978. Bambupun dapat dipakai sebagai tanaman hias. Femina 148:36-37.

Widjaja, E. A. 1980. Indonesia country report. In Lessard, G. & A. Chouinard. 1980. Bamboo Research in Asia. 63-68.

Widjaja, E.A. 1980. The angklung and other West Javanese bamboo musical instrument. In Chouinard. Bamboo Research in Asia.:63-68.

Widjaja, E. A. 1982. Berapa lamakah interval pembungaan bambu sembilang ? Bull. Kebun Raya 5(6):153-155.

Widjaja, E. A. 1983. Klasifikasi bambu suku Dayak Kenyah Lepo Tukung di Kalimantan Timur. Paper presented at Kongres Nasional Biologi VI, Surabaya.

Widjaja, E. A. 1984. Ethnobotanical notes on GigantochIoa in Indonesia with special reference to G. apus. J. Am. Bamboo Soc. 5(3-4):57-68.

Widjaja, E. A. 1984. Sekilas lintas flora bambu Kebun Raya Bogor. Bull. Kebun Raya 6(5) 103-109.

Widjaja, E. A. 1986. Pesona bambu yang belum terungkapkan. Paper presented in Simposium Pekan Pariwisata Jawa Barat, Bandung.

Widjaja, E. A. 1987. A revision of Malesian Gigantochloa (Poaceae-Bambusoideae). Reinwardtia 10(3):291-380.

Widjaja, E.A. 1987. Jenis-jenis Bambusa di Indonesia. Paper presented at Kongres Nasional Biologi VIII, Purwokerto.

Widjaja, E. A. 1987. Penyelamatan plasma nutfah bambu: suatu kasus komoditi yang belum ditangani pembudidayaannya. Paper presented at Diskusi Panel 3 hari plasma nutfah, Jakarta.

Widjaja, E. A. & R. N. Lester. 1987. Experimental taxonomy of the Gigan tochloa atter – Gigantochloa pseudoamndinacea complex. Reinwardtia 10(3):281- 290.

Widjaja, E. A. & Risyad, Z. 1987. Anatomical properties of some bamboos utilized in Indonesia. Pp. 244-246 in Recent Research on Bamboos. (A.N. Rao, G. Dhanarajan & C.B. Sastry, eds). IDRC, Singapore.

Widjaja, E. A. 1987. Pemanfaatan sumber daya bambu Indonesia: prospek penelitian dan pengembangannya. In (Sastrapradja, D., Alfian S., M.A. Rifai and N. Kahar, eds.) Risalah Kongres Ilmu Pengetahuan Nasional IV, Jakarta 8 – 12 September 1986.3:99-116.

Widjaja, E. A. 1988. The eul-eul bamboo. Voice of Nature 57-66.

Widjaja, E. A. & G. Irawan. 1988. Making a living from the Ciliwung River. Voice of Nature 59: 22- 25.

Widjaja, E. A. 1988. Penyelamatan plasma nutfah bambu: suatu kasus komoditi yang belum ditangani pembudidayaannya. Ilmu dan Budaya 10( 10):782-787.

Widjaja, E. A. 1988. Pesona rumpun bambu dalam pertamanan. Lustrum Kedua Hari Jadi PPT Ke X. Lapangan Banteng 29 July - 7 August 1988.:24-26.

Widjaja, E. A. 1988. Bambu untuk bonsai. Asri 70:52-53.

Widjaja, E. A. & S. Dransfield. 1989. Bamboos of South East Asia. Pp. 107-120 in Plant Resources of South East Asia. (J.S . Siemonsma, and N. Wulijarni - Soetjipto, eds.).Proceedings of the First Prosea International Symposium. PROSEA, Bogor

Widjaja, E. A., U. W. Mahyar, S. Sastroutomo. 1989. Tumbuhan anyaman Indonesia.

Widjaja, E. A. 1989. Banzbu. Ensiklopedi Nasional Indonesia 3:106-110.

Widjaja, E. A. 1990. Variasi kerabat dekat bambu kuning. Nekabija 1:26.

Widjaja, E.A. 1990. The position of bamboo in the folk classification of selected Indonesian tribes. Paper presented in the Second International Congress of Ethnobiology Kunming, China.

Widjaja, E. A. 1990. A study on the bambu eul-eul population in G. Tilu National Park. Unpublished report.

Widjaja, E. A. 1990. Kemajuan penelitian untuk menunjang pengembangan industri dan kerajinan bambu di Indonesia. Pp. 28-32 in Gatra Pengembangan Industri dan Kerajinan Bambu. (M. A. Rifai, and E. A. Widjaja, eds.). Perbindo,YPDKI, KPPNN, Dep. Perindustrian, Bogor.

Widjaja, E. A.1990. Progress in the study of Malesian Bambusoideae. Pp. 27-32 in The Plant Diversity of Malesia. (P.K. Baas, K.Kalman and R. Geesink, eds.), Kluwer, Dordrecht.

Widjaja, E. A. & S. S. Tjitrosoedirdjo. 1991. The development of weeds under Dendrocalamus asper (Schu1t.f.) Back. ex Heyne plantation in Lampung, Sumatra. Pp. 225-227 in Proceedings of thethirteenth Asian Pacific Weed Sciences Society Conference. (J.T. Swarbrikk, R.K. Nishimoto and M. Soerjani, eds.)

Widjaja, E. A. 1991. Pengelolaan tanaman bambu sebagai bahan industri. Paper presented at Kongres Ilmu Pengetahuan Nasional V, Jakarta.

Widjaja, E. A. 1992. The peculiar preparation of bamboo shoots for culinary purposes in Indonesia. J. Am. Bamboo Sot. 8(1-2):146-150.

Widjaja, E. A. 1992. Bamboo exploration in Indonesia in relation to the preparation of Flora Malesiana. Paper presented at the Second Flora Malesiana Symposium, Yogyakarta.

Widjaja, E. A. 1992. Socio-ecological observation of bamboo forests in Indonesia. J. Am. Bamboo Soc. 8 (l-2):125-135. Widjaja, E. A. 1993. Jenis-jenis bambu unggul Indonesia. Paper presented at International Bamboo Festival and the first National Convention, Bandung 25 - 28 November 1993.

Widjaja, E. A. 1994 a. Exploring bamboo germplasm in Sumatra. In IDRC-FAO-UNDI? Bamboo in Asia and the Pacific. FORSPA Publication 6:7-14.

Widjaja, E. A. 1994 b. Ex situ Conservation of Indonesian Endemic Bamboo for Extensive Utilization. Pp. 201-210 in Strategies for Flora Conservation in Asia. (Suhirman, G. Butler, eds.). Kebun Raya, Bogor.

Widjaja, E. A. 1994 c. Schizostachyum terminale also in Kalimantan and Sumatra. Floribunda 1: 55-56.

Widjaja, E. A. 1994 d. Endemic bamboo from Sumatra. In IDRC-FAO-UNDP. Bamboo in Asia and the Pacific. FORSPA Publication 6:5-6.

Widjaja, E. A. 1988. The eul-eul bamboo. Voice of Nature 57:66.

Widjaja, E. A. & G. Irawan. 1988. Making a living from the Ciliwung River. Voice of Nature 59: 22-25.

Widjaja, E. A. 1988. Penyelamatan plasma nutfah bambu: suatu kasus komoditi yang belum ditangani pembudidayaannya. Ilmu dan Buday 10( 10):782-787.

Widjaja, E. A. 1988. Pesona rumpun bambu dalam pertamanan. Lustrum Kedua Hari Jadi PPT Ke X. Lapangan Banteng 29 July - 7 August 1988.:24-26.

Widjaja, E. A. 1988. Bambu untuk bonsai. Asri 70:52-53.

Widjaja, E. A. & S. Dransfield. 1989. Bamboos of South East Asia. Pp. 107-120 in Plant Resources of South East Asia. (J.S . Siemonsma, and N. Wulijarni - Soetjipto, eds.).Proceedings of the First Prosea International Symposium. PROSEA, Bogor

Widjaja, E. A., U. W. Mahyar, S. Sastroutomo. 1989. Tumbuhan anyaman Indonesia.

Widjaja, E. A. 1989. Banzbu. Ensiklopedi Nasional Indonesia 3:106-110.

Widjaja, E. A. 1990. Variasi kerabat dekat bambu kuning. Nekabija 1:26.

Widjaja, E.A. 1990. The position of bamboo in the folk classification of selected Indonesian tribes.Paper presented in the Second International Congress of Ethnobiology Kunming, China.

Widjaja, E. A. 1990. A study on the bambu eul-eul population in G. Tilu National Park. Unpublished report.

Widjaja, E. A. 1990. Kemajuan penelitian untuk menunjang pengembangan industri dan kerajinan bambu di Indonesia. Pp. 28-32 in Gatra Pengembangan Industri dan Kerajinan Bambu. (M. A. Rifai, and E. A. Widjaja, eds.). Perbindo, YPDKI, KPPNN, Dep. Perindustrian, Bogor.

Widjaja, E. A.1990. Progress in the study of Malesian Bambusoideae. Pp. 27-32 in The Plant Diversity of Malesia. (P.K. Baas, K.Kalman and R. Geesink, eds.), Kluwer, Dordrecht.

Widjaja, E. A. & S. S. Tjitrosoedirdjo. 1991. The development of weeds under Dendrocalamus asper (Schu1t.f.) Back. ex Heyne plantation in Lampung, Sumatra. Pp. 225-227 in Proceedings of the thirteenth Asian Pacific Weed Sciences Society Conference. (J.T. Swarbrikk, R.K. Nishimoto and M. Soerjani, eds.)

Widjaja, E. A. 1991. Pengelolaan tanaman bambu sebagai bahan industri. Paper presented at Kongres Ilmu Pengetahuan Nasional V, Jakarta.

Widjaja, E. A. 1992. The peculiar preparation of bamboo shoots for culinary purposes in Indonesia. J. Am. Bamboo Sot. 8(1-2):146-150.

Widjaja, E. A. 1992. Bamboo exploration in Indonesia in relation to the preparation of Flora Malesiana. Paper presented at the Second Flora Malesiana Symposium, Yogyakarta.

Widjaja, E. A. 1992. Socio-ecological observation of bamboo forests in Indonesia. J. Am. Bamboo Soc. 8 (l-2):125-135. Widjaja, E. A. 1993. Jenis-jenis bambu unggul Indonesia. Paper presented at International Bamboo Festival and the first National Convention, Bandung 25 - 28 November 1993.

Widjaja, E. A. 1994 a. Exploring bamboo germplasm in Sumatra. In IDRC-FAO-UNDI? Bamboo in Asia and the Pacific. FORSPA Publication 6:7-14. Widjaja, E. A. 1994 b. Ex situ Conservation of Indonesian Endemic Bamboo for Extensive Utilization. Pp. 201-210 in Strategies for Flora Conservation in Asia. (Suhirman, G. Butler, Fuaddini, J. Pfeiffer, M. Richardson and Suhendar, eds.). Kebun Raya, Bogor.

Widjaja, E. A. 1994 c. Schizostachyum terminale also in Kalimantan and Sumatra. Floribunda 1: 55-56.

Widjaja, E. A. 1994 d. Endemic bamboo from Sumatra. In IDRC-FAO-UNDP. Bamboo in Asia and the Pacific. FORSPA Publication 6:5-6.

Widjaja, E. A. 1994e. Plasma nutfah bambu diindonesia: Data dasar dan masa depannya. Paper presented at Temu Kerja Penyusutan Plasma Nutfah Tanaman Ekonomi Indonesia, Bogor.

Widjaja, E. A. , Typuk Artiningsih, Irawati, Woro A. Noerdjito, Mohammad Amir, Liliek Endang Pudjiastuti & Pudji Aswari. 1994. Sepuluh tahun penelitian bambu di Puslitbang Biologi. Pp. 59- 64 in Strategi Penelitian Bambu Indonesia. (E.A.

Widjaja, A. Mien, Bambang Subiyanto, Dodi Nandika, eds.). Yayasan Bambu Lingkungan Lestari.

Widjaja, E. A. 8-c Sonny Widjaja. 1994. The establishment of the Perhutani Bamboo Germplasm Collection Garden. Paper presented on Second Conference of International Association of Botanical Gardens - Asian Division, Serpong 6 - 9 June 1994.

Widjaja, E. A. , Mien A. Rifai, Bambang Subiyanto, Dodi Nandika. 1994. Strategi Penelitian Bambu Indonesia. Yayasan Bambu Lingkungan Lestari.

Widjaja, E. A. 1995. The need for more intensive field exploration for the definitive Flora Malesiana treatment: experience with bamboos. Paper presented at Flora Malesiana Symposium III, Kew.

Widjaja, E. A. 1995. Bamboo biodiversity of Indonesia. In MNLH & KONPHALINDO. An atlas of biodiversity in Indonesia. MNLH & KONPHALINDO, Jakarta.

Widjaja, E. A. 1995. Bamboo for music, ecology, tools and medicine. In M N L H & KONPHALINDO. An atlas of biodiversity in Indonesia. MNLH & KONPHALINDO, Jakarta.

Widjaja, E. A. 1996. Tiying gading bambu hias khas Bali. Trubus 317: 70 - 71. Yani, A. I? & E. A.

Widjaja. 1992. Jenis-jenis bambu dan potensinya di Provinsi Bengkulu. Biotrop Spec. Publ. 46:119- 131.

Forest Ecosystem Research Division

Ecosystems Research and Development Bureau, College, Laguna,

Philippines

Bamboos have been identified as one of the most promising alternative plants for the traditionally used tree species, which are rapidly being depleted from the natural forests. Due to the proposed logging ban, it is expected that wood supply would be erratic and inadequate. The economic and ecological potentials of bamboos are many and the demand for bamboo has increased locally and abroad. However, the supply is getting scarcer. With the unregulated exploitation of bamboo stands and the extensive destruction of their natural habitat, there is an apprehension of eventual erosion of the genetic pool of this very important plant group. People thought and still consider bamboo as abundant everywhere and that supply is infinite from the natural stands. 

Lately, people are beginning to realize or recognize the limited status of bamboo supply. Many people are showing interest in bamboo production and many more are getting directly involved in the production, protection, regulation and conservation of this precious gift of nature. Through the establishment of bambuseta (bamboo gardens) and bamboo plantations, the conservation of the native species is possible and the introduction of important exotic species could also be undertaken. The extent of distribution (in hectares) of native and introduced bamboo species commonly used in different regions of the Philippines is presented in Table I. 

The Ecosystems Research and Development Bureau (ERDB), through the UNDP-FAO Bamboo Research and Development Project, established 57 hectares of bamboo pilot plantations in six (6) different sites of the country with 8 to 11 hectares per site. Eight (8) commercial species are being tried in the pilot plantations. These are the following: Bambusa blwneana; Bambusa vulgaris; Bambusa sp, (Bayog); Bambusa sp. (laak); Dendrocalamus asper; Gigantochloa  atter; Gigantochloa levis; and Schizostachyum lumampao. The plantations are located in Rosario, La Union (Region 1); Pampanga Agricultural College (PAC), Magalang, Pampanga (Region 3); Capiz, Iloilo (Region 6); Cebu (Region 7); Malaybalay, Bukidnon (Region 10); and Bislig, Surigao del Sur (Region 11). Details on the species planted, hectarage and location are shown in Table 2. Through the same project, bambuseta were also established in different parts of the country. Location of these conservation areas are shown in attached maps (Appendix l-8).

A bambusetum was established in Baguio City (Northern Luzon) to accommodate the sub-tropical, temperate and tropical bamboo species. Bambuseta were also established in Nabunturan, Davao, Mindanao and in Los Bafios, Laguna (Southern Luzon) because of the suitability of the condition/ site to bamboo growth, their proximity/ accessibility for maintenance and protection. 

The bambusetum is located 250 km north of Manila, within the Cordillera Administrative Region (CAR). It is situated within the Loakan Experimental Forest of the Department of Environment and Natural Resources (DENR). It is accessible from Baguio City proper through the Baguio-Balatoc Road, at a distance of about 7 km southeast. It is a part of the hilly Benguet pine region with elevations ranging from 1528 to 1570 meters above sea level. The site has two distinct seasons: a dry season extending from December to April and a wet season between May and November. The area is partially covered by 22 to 25 years old Benguet pine trees. Before it was acquired by DENR, the area was subjected to extensive cattle grazing, frequent fires, firewood gathering activities and various topsoil disturbances. To date, 58 bamboo species are being grown and maintained in this area (Table 3).

The bambusetum covering about 2 hectares and located 1030 - 1109 meters above sea level was established in May 1990. It is situated within the ERDB experimentalareainMt.Makiling,LosBaiios,Laguna. More than 30 bamboo species (Table 4) have been planted/introduced.The site is about 3 kilometers away from the ERDB office and/or UPLB College of Forestry. It is under climatic type 1, with two pronounced seasons: dry from November to April, wet during the rest of the year. The area is partially covered by a fairly open secondary growth dipterocarp forest and small clearings that are covered with shrubs, ferns, herbs and other species. Another twenty (20) species of bamboo (Table 5) were planted at the back of the main office of (ERDB) for demonstration purposes. These planting sites are beingmanagedbyERDBandamwithinMt.Makiling which is declared as a forest reserve, hence, their continuous maintenance and protection are assured.

This bambusetum was established in Nabunturan, Davao de1 Norte, Mindanao in 1990. The 2 hectare area is planted with 32 bamboo species (Table 6). The area is just in the vicinity of the Ecosystems Research and Development Service (ERDS) in Nabunturan. It is under climatic type IV where rainfall is more or less evenly distributed throughout the year. 

In 1992, a lo-hectare bambusetum planted with more than 30 bamboo species was established Malaybalay, Bukidnon, Mindanao. The 31 species are listed in Table 7. 

The area is under climatic type III, with seasons not very pronounced, relatively dry from November to April and wet during the rest of the year. 

The selection of the pilot plantation sites was done to capture the eco-physical variability relative to the growing of bamboo species in the country. The bamboo species planted in each plantation are presented in Table 2. 

This pilot plantation is located within the Don Mariano Marcos State University (DMMSU) campus at Rosario, La Union. The soil is clayey with soil particle proportions of 22.4, 33.3 and 44.3% of sand, silt and clay, respectively The soil pH is 5.3. The site has an average annual total rainfall of 2,777 mm with more than 200 mm during the months of May to October and less than 100 mm during the rest of the months. 

The pilot plantation is located within the jurisdiction of the Pampanga Agricultural College (PAC) in Magalang, Pampanga. It is about 92 kilometers from Manila and about five (5) kilometers from the PAC main gate. It has two distinct seasons, rainy from June to October and dry from November to May The average total annual rainfall amounts to about 1,900 mm with the months of June to September having more than 150 mm while the rest of the months having less than 100 mm. The dominant vegetation in the area consists mostly of shrubs. 

The &hectare plantation is located inside the campus of the Panay State Polytechnic College (PSPC), Dumarao branch along the National Highway connecting Iloilo City to Roxas City and Kalibo Aklan in the Panay island, West Visayas. It is approximately 28 kms from the Regional Ecosystems Research and Development Station at Mambusao, Capiz. The site was once a grazing land with slopes up to 18 percent dominated by patches of shrubs and grasses. Small tree species like binayuyu (Antidesma ghaemsembilZa), and shrubs, abound in the area. A good feature of the area is the presence of a spring/creek in the middle of the site. 

The soil is sandy loam with a proportion of 54.2% sand, 30.5% silt and 15.3% clay The soil pH is 4.1. The total annual rainfall averages 1,900 mm with more than 200 mm monthly rainfall during the months of May to November, the rest of the months with less than 100 mm. 

This 12-hectare pilot plantation is located within a reforestation area, part of ERDS-DENR Region 7 experimental forest at Camp 7, Minglanilla, Cebu City. The soil, with soil pH of 5.7, is classified as loam with components of 28.3% sand,45.2% silt and 26.5% clay The average annual rainfall is 1,490 mm with more than 150 mm during the months from July to November and less than 100 mm during the rest of the year. 

The 12-hectare pilot plantation is located within the area of Malaybalay Reforestation Project (now Bukidnon Industrial Plantation Project) at Canayan, Malaybalay, Bukidnon. It is about 850 kilometers from Manila and 90 kilometers from Cagayan de Oro City. It has an altitudinal range of 700 to 800 meters above sea level. The soil in the area is sandy clay loam with a pH range of 5.4 to 5.8, containing low to medium nitrogen and phosphorus. The average annual rainfall is about 2400 mm with more than 200 mm during the months of May to November and less than 100 mm during the rest of the year. 

This 12-hectare plantation is located within the experimental forest of ERDS-DENR Region XI Research Station in Bislig, Surigao de1 Sur, Mindanao. Rainfall in the area is more than 150 mm in all months with more than 400 mm in January, February, March and December. Average total annual rainfall is 3,900 nun. 

Since bamboo is indispensable to the Filipino people and the tremendous demand for it is bringing about rapid exploitation of this resource, more plantations have to be established. As an alternative, the consumers or the private practitioners themselves are establishing plantations. This way, they are fulfilling their objectives, create livelihood and provide employment, and the plantations so far established help in the prevention of soil erosion and conservation of bamboo resources. 

NEPA-Q.-MART Industries, a private enterprise is implementing a Bamboo Production Pilot Project, specifically concerned with the growing and propagation of bamboo on a national scale. Since 1990, the enterprise has already set-up a total of 265 bamboo demonstration farms and nurseries in 56 of the country’s 75 provinces. 

A 50-hectare plantation was established in 1986 by Mr. Jose Ma. M. Pastor in Barangay San Antonio, Isla Verde, Batangas City. The area which was once covered with shurbs is now planted with Bambusa blumeana. 

In Pililla, Rizal, Mr. Domingo J. Alfonso developed a 17-hectare area into a Bambusa blumeana plantation, earning good income. In 1989, he reported a gross income of over p20,000 per hectare per year. He has completely reforested the area. Bamboo as cover, erosion is no longer a problem. By continuously producing propagules and expanding his plantation, he is in one way helping in the conservation of bamboo resources. 

In Davao Province, specifically within the municipality of Tagum, thousands of hectares of land have been planted with laak (Bambusa sp.) by farmers. Bamboo planting is becoming a big industry not only to support the 30,000 hectares of banana plantations, but also for furniture and soon perhaps for paper pulp, chopstick and bamboo plywood (Caasi 1989). It can also regreen deforested areas faster and improve soil conditions. 

In Claveria, Cagayan, 10,000 pieces of planting materials of Machiku (Dendrocalamus latiflorus) were produced in 1971. In 1982, Bony reported that Taggat Industries Inc. have more than 1000 clumps of Dendrocalamus latiflorus in their plantations. 

In Daraitan, Tanay, Rizal, a 2 hectare Bambusa blumeana plantation was established in 1982. The area is being managed by ERDB and a harvesting study is being implemented in the area by ERDB researchers. 

Bambusetum, bamboo gardens and pilot plantations were established in different parts of the country. All important data and/or information regarding the establishment of these areas were recorded. Information about each species planted, i.e., source or origin of planting material, type of planting material used, and date of planting, were recorded. The time of flowering, insect attacks, and/or pest and disease occurrence were also documented. It has been observed that most of the bamboo species which are showing vigorous growth in the bambuseta and plantations are endemic to the Philippines.  

Bambusetum and bamboo gardens were established in Baguio City (Cordillera Administrative Region); Los Bafios, Laguna (Region 4); Nabunturan, Davao de1 Norte (Region 11); and Malaybalay, Bukidnon (Region 10). These bambuseta were established only about seven years ago. Thus, only very few number of planting materials are available at the time of reporting. However, the commonly used bamboo species in plantation development which were planted in these bambuseta are endemic to the Philippines. Therefore, they can be utilized as source of planting materials. In case of exotic species planted in the bambuseta, they should not be utilized as source of planting materials until after they have been planted and tested in other parts of the country and found suitable to local conditions. ‘

(i) Philippine bambusetum in Baguio City 

This site was selected because of its location and climate. It was established in 1988 and has been given full attention and financial support. Temperate, subtropical and tropical bamboo species were planted.The introduced or exotic species, which are mostly ornamental, are being raised continuously in the nursery. These species can be propagated easily by simply dividing or separating the clumps. Some species are however bigger and can only be propagated by rooted culms or rhizome cuttings. Each exotic species planted can provide at least 5 offsets or rhizome cutting for introduction or adaptation trial to other bambuseta and bamboo gardens in the country. These are the Sasa, Phyllostachys and Pleioblastus species which came from Chile, China and Japan. After 5 years, these bamboos could have developed fully and if found adapted to local conditions they could already be mass-propagated and support the planting material requirements of the pilot plantations and reforestation projects of CAR (Cordillera Administrative Region) and nearby provinces. Initially however, at least 100 planting units per species should be raised for introduction to the different bambuseta and bamboo gardens nationwide. The endemic bamboo species can be mass propagated for distribution to the nearby reforestation projects and private bamboo farms. 

This bambusetum was established in Mt. Makiling, Los Banos, Laguna where the climate/ condition is conducive to plant growth, Almost all of the bamboos planted are performing well. Aside from this, some of the bamboo species, were planted using tissue cultured plantlets and seeds. A very good example is Dendrocalamus strictus, where more than 20 tissue cultured-seedlings were planted. Thyrsostachys siamensis and Schizostachyum lumampao were raised from seeds. Other species like, Bambusa vulgaris, Bambusa blumeana and Bambusa glaucescens were planted using the traditional propagules. These bamboos can be grown extensively for development and they can be propagated by either culm, offset or rhizome cuttings. 

More or less 20 clumps of the above-mentioned species are available and can be used as source of planting materials. Each year, a minimum of 5 culms can be utilized for the said purpose. For each culm, at least 10 cuttings can be propagated. 

To meet needs for planting materials of the farmers, and the reforestation projects of Laguna and other nearby provinces like Batangas, Quezon and Cavite, at least 1000 seedlings /cuttings per species should be made available to establish at least 2 hectares of plantation in each province. This area is presently being maintained and protected by the ERDB and future propagation and distribution of planting materials to farmers and for reforestation projects shall be done by the same agency. 

Bambusa atra, a native bamboo species which can grow in mangrove or swampy areas, can only be found in this site. At present (1995) the bambusetum can only provide very limited planting materials for further plantings/trials. This particular species flowers continuously but has not produced seeds. It can be propagated by offset cutting or rooted branches. Bambusa vulgaris var wamin and the green variety of Schizos tachyum brachycladum can only be found in this site. Again at present (1995) very limited planting materials can be produced from this species. Only about 2 clumps of these species were planted, but could still be multiplied and expanded. Both the species are propagated by offset or rhizome cutting. 

After about 5 years, this bambusetum can already provide the necessary planting materials for reforestation projects and plantation establishment. S. brachycladum and B. atra produce  many culms per year, hence, several planting  materials can be gathered from these bamboos. Even the branches of B. atra are usually rooted and can be used as planting materials. Since this particular endemic species can be found only in this site, initial planting should be done first within the province. It should be later propagated for planting in the pilot plantations in Surigao de1 Sur and in Malaybalay, Bukidnon. From each culm, at least 5 rooted branches and rhizome cuttings can be collected.. Annually, at least 500 planting materials could be raised to establish at least 2 hectares of bamboo plantations in the nearby communities. Production and distribution of planting materials shall be undertaken by the ERDS/DENR regional office in Davao City and/ or in Nabunturan, Davao del Norte. 

Very limited planting materials can be provided from this bambusetum. Not more than 2 clumps of each bamboo species has been planted. Bambusa vulgaris var. maculata, an endemic species commonly known as spotted bamboo is only available in this site. This species can be used as ornamental, just like kauayan-kiling. It is even more beautiful than kauayan kiling because of the presence of spots on its internodes. However, it can also be used as raw material for furniture and the like. The spots are especially prominent when the poles are dry. Just like other species under genus Bambusa, it can be propagated by rooted culm cutting. About 6 cuttings can be collected from each culm. From a 5-year-old clump, about 10 culms can be gathered and used as planting material. Since this is a very useful species, it should be mass propagated and introduced or planted initially in the bambusetum in Baguio, Davao, and Los Banos and later in the pilot plantation in Surigao de1 Sur. When fully established, this bamboo could be multiplied and planted in the different plantations nationwide. About 300 cuttings could be raised, annually from this bambusetum. . 

Under the UNDP/FAO Bamboo Project in the Philippines, pilot plantations were established in six different parts of the country The selection of the pilot plantation sites was made to capture the physical variability relative to the growing of bamboo species in the country. Eight endemic bamboo species were variably distributed in the six pilot plantation sites in Luzon, Visayas and Mindanao. Each site has been described verybriefly in the previous chapter. 

On the fifth year, after establishment, initial growth performance of the planted bamboos was assessed (Virtucio 1994). Results site were as follows: 

Bayog (Bambusa sp.) has been found to be most productive in this site. Kauayan kiling (Bambmsa vulgaris) and giant bamboo (Dendrocalamus asper) also performed well. These species shall be propagated to provide the planting material needed by the farmers and the reforestation projects of Region 1 and nearby provinces. More than 10 cuttings can be collected from each culm and at least 6 culms can be gathered from each clump. Annually at least 3,000 seedlings/cuttings could be raised from this plantation for distribution. To raise planting materials, manage and protect the plantations, at least USD 10,000 is needed. 

Kauayan-tinik (Bambusa blumeana), kiling (Bambusa vulgaris), and bayog (Bambusa sp.) are showing good performance in this site. These species will be multiplied to provide the planting material necessary to reforest denuded areas in Region 3 and for planting in the resettlement areas of the Mt. Pinatubo victims. To reforest these areas, a minimum of 10,000 rooted culm cuttings a year shall be raised and hardened in the nursery. For Pampanga alone, the planting material requirement is tremendous. Beside from covering/protecting the area, these bamboos will later become source of livelihood of the people. This plantation is being maintained and protected by ERDB in cooperation with the Pampanga Agricultural College in Magalang, Pampanga. Hence, ERDB will be the lead agency in the production and distribution of the planting materials. However, to fully support the maintenance and protection of the plantation and the production of planting materials at least USD 30,000 is needed.  

Among all the bamboo species planted in this site, only Kauayan kiling (Bambusa vulgaris) performed better than the rest. Bolo (GigantochIoa Levis), which is abundant within the vicinity of Region 6 can also be multiplied for introduction/planting to  other areas. Since both species are available in most parts of the country, an additional 2 hectares provenance /landrace stands are needed for future collection of planting materials for further trials/ testings. For this, a thousand units of planting materials will be enough. The amount needed to establish, manage and protect this additional area is about USD 8,000.00. 

Buho (Schizostachyum lumampao) and giant bamboo (Dendrocalamus asper) grow well in this site. These bamboos were planted in only few sites and therefore needs further introduction/planting to other areas. Planting materials of both species should be raised for introduction not only within the vicinity of Region 7 but also for the nearby provinces. For buho, rhizome or offset cutting and seedlings can be used. For giant bamboo, rooted culm cutting can be used. To provide the necessary planting material to reforest some open/grassland areas of the region, at least 2,000 seedlings / cuttings per year should be produced by the ERDS/DENR regional office in Minglanilla, Cebu. 

Laak (Bambusa sp.) and kayali (Gigantochloa atter) were only planted in this site. Initial assessment after four years, showed that the species produced 33 culms and 22 culms per clump respectively. Bolo (Gigantochloa levis) has been found to be productive also in this site, with 34 culms per clump in the 4th year. 

Buho (Schizostachyum lumampao) also grows big and tall in this plantation, with an average of 3.96 cm in diameter and 9.17 m in height in the 4th year. Since Surigao province is under varied climatic conditions and generally believed to be very conducive to bamboo growth, it would be very interesting to study the performance of these bamboos when planted at different locations in Surigao. About 1,000 seedlings/ cuttings should be raised and an additional plantation area should be established in nearby provinces especially for S. lumampao and G. levis. At present, planting materials of Bambusa sp. are available for distribution to interested bamboo growers.  

Giant bamboo (Dendrocalamus asper) is known to grow best in this site. Bayog (Bambusa sp.), is also a promising species in the site. For further introduction/planting of these species (especially bayog which is very useful because of its durability), more planting materials should be raised. If possible, and whenever resources are available, 10,000 seedlings or cuttings should be produced annually. ERDS (Ecosystems Research and Development Sector) Regional Office of the DENR in Region 10 in Malaybalay, Bukidnon shall take the lead in production and distribution of the bamboo planting materials. 

All the data and information gathered through the regular monitoring of the growth performance of all the bamboos planted in the different bambuseta and pilot plantations were noted/recorded. The same forms and parameters were used and measured in the data collection for all the regions (Please see Table 8). All these data/information gathered were not yet entered into a computerized data base but information about each bamboo planted in the different bambuseta was individually noted on index cards. A sample of how it was done is shown in the following table: 

In addition, manuals for each bambuseta and pilot plantations were prepared and published. Latest information and/or observations about each species planted were published in journals. 

Knowledge on the different methods of bamboo propagation is vital in determining the appropriate method to be used for each particular species and condition. To attain successful establishment and growth, propagules or planting materials must have well-developed root systems and shoots arising from rhizomes. Bamboos can be propagated either by seeds, culm cuttings, branch cuttings or marcotting, offset or rhizome cutting and tissue culture.

This method is seldom used because of the rare and irregular flowering of most bamboo species. Besides, most bamboos produce infertile seeds or seldom do they develop seeds. Moreover, most bamboos generally die soon or a year after flowering. 

The seeds of most bamboo species usually lose viability within one to two months. They can be sown directly in polyethylene bags with ordinary garden soil, in seed boxes or nursery beds. After two months, they can be transplanted in plastic bags. Regular watering and weeding are necessary When the seedlings are 0.75 m to 1 m tall, they can be planted in the field. Wildlings should be potted, tended and hardened in the nursery for several months before planting. To prolong the viability of surplus seeds, the moisture content should be reduced to 8% and then stored with silica gel or anhydrous calcium chloride in dessicator at 3°C to 5°C. 

In the Philippines, a study on the flowering of bamboo was initiated by Sinohin (1990) and results showed that at least some species were observed to flower during the 2-year study period (Table 9) and only few species developed viable seeds (Table 10). 

Preliminary surveys and observations showed that among the flowering bamboo species, only Gigantochloa levis and Schizostachyum lumampao have so far produced viable seeds. About 5 g of G. levis seeds were collected and germinated. Fifty percent germination was obtained after 3 days on moist filter paper. They were transplanted in small plastic bags. Several germinants were also observed on the spike. Wildlings were also observed. 

About 10 g seeds of S. Zumampao were collected in Naguilian Road. Eight percent germination was obtained after 2-8 days under moist filter paper. They were transplanted in plastic bags. Several germinants were also observed on the spike and on the ground. 

The use of vegetative parts is more reliable and probably the most practical and easiest method of propagating bamboo. Vegetative propagation can be done through: (i) rhizome offset cutting, (ii) culm cutting, (iii) branch cutting, and (iv) tissue culture. 

(i) Rhizome cutting. This method makes use of the rhizome and the portion of the culm. It is commonly used in monopodial or non-clump forming bamboos. It can also be applied to some sympodial or clump-forming bamboo species like Schizos tachyum lima and Schizos tachyum lumampao because they have thin walls and they are difficult to propagate by either culm or branch cuttings. This method is however not recommended to many tropical bamboos because of the short neck of the rhizome and dense clumps. Collection is difficult and may damage both the parent culm and the propagules and only little material can be collected. These materials are bulky inconvenient to transport and expensive to use for large scale reforestation and plantation development. 

Generally, offsets from one-to-two year old culms are better propagules than from older culms. Their rhizomes are young, vigorous and have active buds. Offsets should be collected during the rainy season for higher survival. It also important that the culm bears 2 to 3 nodes with vigorous buds. 

(ii) Culm cutting. This method uses part of the culm (cuttings) bearing buds or branches. Cuttings are commonly used to propagate the sympodial bamboos especially Bambusa, Dendrocalamus and Gigantochlob. Traditionally, these are directly planted in the field especially so if the source near the planting site. However, this is practical only in the production of a limited number culms. For large scale plantation, and for better survival, growth and development, it is necessary to raise them in the nursery. Nursery raised culm cuttings receive better care and maintenance. Besides, proper grading and selection propagules can be done before outplanting. Culm cuttings are most preferred and are being used extensively because of the ease in the preparation and transport, availability of materials at the right age, beside being cheaper. 

A culm cutting can consist of one-node or two-node portion. The propagation material should be taken from vigorous clumps and only  culms that are 1.5 to 2 years old should be chosen. The culm should be cut from June to October and the branches should be pruned. The culm cutting is planted in a pot in an inclined position so that the emerging shoot would grow vertically 

Propagating culm cuttings: The most important factors to be considered in the selection of cuttings for vegetative propagation are the age and physical condition of the culm and buds at the nodes. The other important factors that affect the survival and growth performance in the nursery and field are: portion of the culm, size and technique of preparing cuttings, time of collection and planting, rooting techniques and media and other environmental considerations like soil, temperature and moisture. The age of culms suited for propagation varies according to species. Generally, cuttings taken from one-to-two year old culms are good propagules. These have active and vigorous buds capable of producing new shoots. Cuttings from older culms have higher mortality and could delay shoot emergence, whereas those from very young culms dry and rot easily. 

Portion of the culm: Generally, the butt and middle portions of the culm in most bamboo species are good sources of planting materials. 

Time of collection: For better rooting, shoot production and survival, planting materials should be collected during the early part of the rainy season. The recommended age, size, method of planting, and portion of culm for selected bamboo species in the Philippines are shown in Table 11. 

Techniques of planting propagules: Propagules raised in seedbeds should be planted either in slanting or horizontal position. When grown in pots, culm cuttings should be planted in slanting position to expose the first node of the branch complement. The inclined position of the culm cuttings enhances the emergence and development of the shoot. 

Rooting media: Ordinary garden soil can be used. However, if sand is available, a mixture of the two can improve rooting. Sand is a useful rooting medium because it is inert, well-drained, moist and warm. Watering can be done manually However, misting is practical, effective and convenient in areas where watering system is available. The relative humidity around the cuttings should be kept at a higher level during the rooting period, to allow the bamboo culm cuttings to develop roots and grow into new plants. 

(iii) Branch-cutting. This is an alternative method of propagating rhizomatous branch-producing bamboos like Bambusa blumeana, Bambusa sp., (bayog), Bambusa vulgaris, and Bamblrsa vulgaris var. striata. Individual branches that resemble the mother culms and with small basal portion and aerial roots are used. These are potential materials for the production of economical and uniform planting stocks that are easy to handle for outplanting, aside from saving the potentially marketable culms from cutting. 

Raising branch cuttings: To raise branch  cuttings in the nursery, the age of the material, portion of the culm where cuttings are taken, size of the cuttings, time of collection, rooting techniques and potting media are important.   

One-to-two year old culms are ideal source of branch cuttings. Those with prominently swollen basal branches located at the butt and middle portions of the culm (preferably with in situ rooting or developed aerial root primordia) should be selected and used as propagules. The swollen part of the branch and the buds should not be damaged during the collection. The size may vary from two to three nodes of branch cuttings. The branch cuttings should be collected during the early part of the rainy season. They should be planted in pots or in nursery beds immediately after collection. They could also be planted in propagating sand bed for better rooting, sprouting, shoot production and rhizome development. After 20-30 days, the rooted branch cuttings should be transferred into polyethylene bags (6" x 8") with ordinary garden soil mixed with either 30% sand or compost or decomposed sawdust or coirdust. These could also be raised in nursery beds until they are ready for outplanting. Outplanting can be done when the propagules have developed shoots and rhizomes when the conditions in the field are already favourable, usually during the onset of the rainy season. However, these could be reared in the nursery for six months for further development and hardening. 

(iv) Tissue culture. This method involves the development of new plants from plant tissues in an artificial medium under aseptic conditions. Relatively small space and few staff are required to mass produce bamboos using this method. Production of plants can be carried out in the laboratory the year round. Propagation techniques involving aseptic culture of plant parts have been proven useful for bamboos. Several methods of propagation have been reported by Zamora et al. (1991) including callus establishment from seeds, excised embryos with subsequent plant regeneration, (b) callus establishment from shoots, inflorescence, leaves and internode tissues, (c) node culture, and (d) multiple plant formation from aseptically germinated seedlings.Of the various tissue culture methods, seed and embryo culture are sufficiently developed for mass propagation. The propagation technique using excised embryos has been demonstrated locally for Dendrocalamus strictus, Schizostachyum lumampao, Gigantochloa levis and Schizostachyum lima at the laboratory of the Cellular and Molecular Plant Biology Program, Institute of Plant Breeding (IPB), UP at Los Banos (UPLB). Tissue culture plantlets were planted in Abucay Bataan (Bataan National Agricultural School) San Marcelino, Zambales (Western Luzon Agricultural College), Magalang, Pampanga (Pampanga Agricultural College) and Los Banos, Laguna (IPB, UPLB). 

 Annotated bibliography

Copies of the publications cited in this document can be requested from ATMAN, through the Director.

L. L. Gonzales, A. A. Pinol and N. S. Uriarte Canopy International. Vol. No. 4 July-August 1993 pp.5-6.

Bamboo has emerged as one of the useful forest products. However, the current source of bamboo poles in many parts of the country are the naturally-growing stands. The study was conducted from October 1987 to September 1990 in Barangay Sta Cruz, Jose Panganiban, Camarines Norte. The site is located within the jurisdiction of the Rainfed Resources Development Project (RRDP). The study evaluated the technology transfer schemes of bamboo technologies, specifically the establishment of a community-based demonstration area. It also verified the techniques of establishing, growing and managing bamboo plantation and determined performance of bamboo in pilot scale plantation. A two-hectare area owned by a farmer cooperator which was previously a logged-over area and dominantly covered by small trees, talahib grass, and other shrubs associated with coconut, and fruit trees was developed into a bamboo plantation. 

When the bamboo plantation was already in place, the farmers became willing participants. Of the 25 respondents, 21 showed their interests in establishing bamboo plantation. What is encouraging after three years of the project establishment is that seven farmers have already planted bamboos in their farms. With the increasing participation, the establishment of demo-bamboo farm could be an effective way of disseminating production technologies, and inspire farmers to pursue their development according to resources at hand. 

2. Bamboo production research and development. M. A. Eusebio, N. H. Hoanh and P. Q. Vinh. Canopy 14(6): 4-8 ND’89

The demand for bamboo products in both domestic and overseas markets has been steadily increasing especially for local agricultural development, furniture and handicraft production. The supply of bamboo, however, is reduced substantially at an alarming rate. The shortage of bamboo has resulted in a renewed effort by the government to develop and replenish the fast-dwindling standing stock, leading to the implementation of an INE-UNDP/FAO Bamboo Research and Development Project in 1987 and other related development programs which are in their various stages of implementation. The potential uses of bamboo in the production of laminated wood products and in pulp and paper making will zero in on bamboo as the top contender among the woody species of the fast-growing type for industrial plantation development. 

Sexual propagation plays a minimal role in the generation of bamboo planting stock as propagules are mainly derived through asexual means which include rhizomes, marcots, cuttings, and plantlets obtained through tissue culture. Survival of planting materials is nearly a sure event when rhizomes are used. However, the disadvantage of the applicability of this propagation method is affected by: .

a . limited supply of rhizomes 

b. bulkiness of rhizome which creates great difficulty during extraction/transport and hole preparation. 

Marcotting is being used as the main propagation method in a farm in Rizal Province (Alfonso 1989). However, this method is suitable only for branching bamboo species which are relatively short in height. It is not useful to bamboos that grow in areas with distinct dry and wet season.

Propagation by cuttings has been the most popular and extensively used method and studied. Bamboo farming favours the development of small land holding and the use of intensive labor suits well to the Philippine setting in the quest of improving the livelihood of the masses. The high affinity for moisture of bamboo and its capability to suppress the growth of other vegetation require some prudence in selecting the appropriate site for bamboo development. Climate also affects the differences in its ability to yield and regenerate. Researches on flowering inhibition and induction, harvesting and ecological characteristics of bamboo, especially those of commercial values, must be intensified in order to support a sustainable bamboo production system. Extra efforts should be made to move the extension service machinery nearer to the masses at the villages and remote areas with the aim of transferring bamboo technology and to encourage the masses to participate in bamboo farming. 

Felizardo D. Virtucio, NPPP. Bamboo Research and Development Project (PHI/85/008) Report. ERDB, College, Laguna

Eight bamboo species were planted in six pilot  plantation sites in Luzon, Visayas, and Mindanao. The main objective of the establishment of the pilot plantations was to provide show window to the farmers in the countryside and to establish field experiments for the generation of plantation management regimes for the eight economically or commercially important bamboo species. The five year growth performance of the eight bamboo species was assessed and field experiments implemented in the six sites were also discussed. Based on the results of the study and the data gathered, it can be concluded that the project has successfully established the pilot plantations for the eight bamboo species in the six sites located in Luzon, Visayas and Mindanao. These pilot plantations have been designed and managed as show windows to bamboo farmers and to generate harvesting and management technologies for the bamboo species. 

The five-year growth data also reveal the  productivity of the six pilot sites relative to the growing of economically-important bamboo species in the locality. The data provides useful information in selecting alternative species to develop in the six study sites. 

The growth performance of bamboo species  planted in the six pilot sites should be continuously monitored relative to various harvesting and silvicultural treatments designed in the established field experiments. Field experiments have been established to generate the expected management prescription for the eight bamboo species which require long periods of observation. 

Bamboo stands out among woody plants in so many respects. It offers a great variety of uses and possesses excellent qualities which are not found in other plants. In terms of rate of growth, bamboos grow faster than timber trees. The culms mature at an early age of 4 to 6 years, and this makes the cutting age relatively short depending upon the species, site and end-use. Another advantage of bamboo is its capacity to regenerate asexually and naturally. Once a bamboo plantation has been successfully established, there is continuous yearly regeneration of new culms from the young rhizomes. Systematic and selective cutting of mature culms assure continuous production of young shoots, which is an index of annual yield or increment. Impressive growth and regeneration characteristics of bamboo and its high potential for industrial uses are important factors for its successful management. Bamboo plantation could be managed effectively if the exploitation is regulated on a sustained-yield basis. 

Assessment of the past researches on bamboo in the Philippines reveals that the available informa-tion on the management of bamboo plantation is still far from adequate to be able to provide meaningful guidelines for proper management. The studies conducted have limited application because of apparent lack of correlation with some other important factors or variables that may have significant effects on the optimum levels of growth, yield and rotation. Knowledge of effective propagation methods for a given species under  various site conditions is also necessary in the success of plantation establishment. The effects of various kinds and preparation of propagules on the growth, survival and yield should be determined for all important bamboo species. The propagules to be studied should include rhizomes with roots, stem cuttings, offset planting and if possible, seeds. 

Growth, development and yield of bamboo may also be affected by spacing, site preparation and fertilization. A study on the effects of pruning and salvage/sanitation cutting on the growth yield and harvesting should also be made. It has been stated that the short rotation of bamboo is an advantage in the establishment and management of bamboo plantations. Since bamboo absorbs much inorganic nutrients in order to grow, fertilization may be necessary to increase the yield of bamboo and its propagation. Further studies should be done on the felling cycle and cutting intensity of bamboos because these are two major considerations for the effective management of bamboo plantation. 

This document was prepared by Dr. F. M. Schlegel and Ms. F. T. Tangan to disseminate information about the Philippine Bambusetum established within the Loakan Experimental Forest of the Department of Environment and Natural Resources, Cordillera Administrative Region, in Baguio City. It presents the characterization of the physiographic and environmental features of the area, describes the flora and presents a complete list of all native and introduced bamboo species planted at the site. 

The Philippine Bambusetum established within the Department of Environment and Natural Resources (DENR) Experimental Forest in Loakan, Baguio City, has many bamboo species cultivated for research and extension. This development project of the DENR is funded by the United Nations Development Program (UNDP) and the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO). It consists of 4.41 hectares with an envisioned expansion of 2.5 hectares. It aims to show the cultural value of different bamboo species for production, watershed protection and recreation-landscaping purposes. Specifically, it serves as an acclimatization area for newly-introduced bamboo species and it contributes to the preservation of endangered native bamboo species. 

Bamboo has become one of the more important  reforestation species being adaptable to a wide range of site qualities allowing greater flexibility in actual plantation development. It is financially attractive, ecologically sound and socially acceptable. The most common method of bamboo propagation used in the country today is by culm cuttings although other vegetative parts of the bamboo such as branches and rhizomes are also utilized as source of planting stocks. Although two-node culm cuttings were found to be successful for propagation for several important bamboo species, search continued for a more efficient and practical method of bamboo propagation. Along this effort, a preliminary trial of propagating bolo (Gigantochloa 1evis)by one-node culm cuttings in the nursery was tested. The trial study showed promising result. However, to derive more conclusive results on the one-node culm cuttings as a nursery propagation method for bolo, a full-blown study incorporating appropriate experimental design and statistical analysis should be undertaken. With the potential of one-node culm cuttings as a nursery propagation technique, its applicability on other bamboo species should likewise be tested. 

The pilot bamboo plantation is located within the jurisdiction of Pampanga Agricultural College (PAC), Magalang, Pampanga and was established to assist the government to create new appropriate employment in the rural areas which will uplift the income of the populace through research and development and the promotion of bamboo production. The eight-hectare plantation was planted with four bamboo species namely: Bambusa blumeana, Bambusa vulgaris, Bambusa sp. 1 and Gigantochloa levis. Monitoring of growth performance of the planted bamboos is a regular and continuing activity in the plantation. 

Despite the undisputed beneficial use to mankind, not much has been done to conserve the remaining bamboo resources nor to improve their quality. There is, however, a pressing need to develop an appropriate integrated conservation strategy for bamboos. We must remember that there is no single method we could use to conserve them. Initially, however, we should know/locate the remaining bamboo resources through resource inventory/assessment. 

Of all the multitudinous plants of Asia, perhaps none is better known or more useful than the bamboos (Johnson 1990). However, despite its usefulness, it has been badly neglected in recent decades and up to the present. The demand for bamboo is greater than ever and its supply has decreased substantially and continues to do so at an alarming rate. The Bureau of Forest Development, as quoted by Peyton (1990) reported that over the past 60 years, the total hectarage planted to bamboo in the Philippines has decreased from 200,000 hectares to only 7,924 hectares.Yet Filipinos’ demand for bamboo continues to rise, and is even expected to increase several times over in the near future due to the diminishing supply of timber resources brought about by regulated commercial logging in natural forests. The only known effort to document the nation’s flora took place before World War II. Unfortunately, the documents were burned during the war, since then there has been no effort to reconstruct this inventory or even undertake another study on bamboos. Hence, there is an urgent need for an inventory and identification of the remaining bamboo resources/species available in the country. 

To identify and quantify the existing bamboos in the Philippines.

1 . To conduct an inventory of the standing stock and identification of the different bamboos grown in the Philippines.

2 . To document the different bamboos collected and identified.

a. Updated botanical collection of all the bamboos found in the Philippines.

b. Manual for the identification, distribution and uses of commercial and potentially useful bamboos.

c. Quantity and location of remaining bamboo resources available in the Philippines.

d. Preparation of detailed distribution maps for the important bamboo species.

Areas or provinces identified by the PCARRD Commodity on Non-timber Products as the major bamboo producing provinces in the Philippines shall be selected as study areas.

To obtain the necessary information on the distribution and uses of the different bamboo species, and develop a practical guide for the identification of the said species, a survey shall be formulated and implemented in the selected provinces. The survey shall be divided into two phases. The first phase shall determine the specific sites/location of the natural stands and those planted within each province. The second phase shall be the actual inventory of standing stock and identification of these bamboo species using a sampling intensity. Specimens of the various bamboo species shall also be collected and identified. Classification and identification specimens shall be done using keys and comparing with herbarium specimens. 

The different bamboos shall be properly documented as to their actual/natural habitat. The different plants/vegetation associated with the species shall be tallied and identified. The species found and identified during the surveys shall be documented using still and slide photos. In addition to the taxonomic descrip-tions, other distinguishing characteristics, the plant’s habitat shall be noted. The photos and information arising from the survey shall be systematically assembled and organized to come up with a source book or manual on bamboos. This will be supplemented with scientific illustration and practical guides for identification. After a thorough study/ examination of the specimens collected, a key for the identification of all the specimens/species collected shall be constructed. 

Data gathering shall be undertaken for the various parameters previously described. Other relevant information related to the study shall be noted and documented. Appropriate statistical techniques shall be employed in the analysis of the various parameters and coefficients desired in the study. 

Bamboo resources in their natural habitat have dwindled considerably due to over-exploitation of some species for fuelwood and raw materials in cottage industry, shifting cultivation practices, gregarious flowering and extensive forest fires. Since natural variation is the basic genetic material required for selection and improvement, we need to give highest priority to the conservation of the remaining available genetic diversity. Conservation of the genetic diversity of bamboo can be done through several methods and/or approaches. This can however be divided into ex situ or in situ approaches. These approaches are markedly different from approaches to ecosystem conservation because bamboos generally occur outside of primary forests and in disturbed forest sites. 

The wild or the native bamboo species located and/or found growing in their natural habitats during the inventory/resource survey shall be noted and studied further. These bamboos shall be identified and their performance shall be monitored regularly Some of the bamboo species considered rare and endangered that need to be conserved in the wild are Bambusa cornuta, Yushania niitakayamensis, Schizostachyum fenixii, Schizostachyum luzonicum, Schizostachyum textorium and Bambtrsa atra. Likewise, bamboo species found only in specific places like laak (Bambusa sp.) and kayali (Gigantochloa atter) shall be conserved in situ. They will be protected and conserved to preserve the interspecific and intraspecific genetic variability. The conservation of these provenances in their natural habitats is the best gene conservation method, provided however, they are given full protection. Depending on the distribution and/or location of the existing natural stands of bamboos, the areas where they are present shall be declared bamboo reserves for in situ conservation.

This method can be applied for the establishment of clone banks, bamboo gardens and through in vitro conservation.

Bamboo plantations shall be established using rooted cuttings and suckers. The advantages of using clonal germplasm raised from cuttings or clumps for conservation are substantial. These clonal banks of bamboo germplasm will be useful in genetic conservation. 

Bambusetum and/or bamboo gardens were established in different parts of the country. These replicated germplasm lines of bamboos of known origin from different provenances which can be used for basic and applied research work and for germplasm exchange. 

Because of the limitations of seed and vegetative methods of ex-situ conservation, tissue culture has become a promising alternative. In vitro culture started in the Philippines in the 1980’s. Successful work, on bamboo micropropagation was done by Zamora et al. (1990) at BIOTECH, UPLB, College, Laguna, using seeds. The field performance of these seedlings produced by tissue culture are being observed. There are several advantages in the micropropagation of bamboo through tissue culture. It is very useful in germplasm collecting, conservation and exchange. It is a quick method of propagation and enables high multiplication rates. It needs a relatively small space to produce a lot of seedlings. Tissue culture will be done on the commercially important bamboos in the Philippines, especially those that are hard to propagate and are continuously flowering without producing seeds like Bambusa blumeana and Bambusa sp. (bayog). 

This project will focus on the identification of main species for use in the Philippines and on the exploration of genetic variations in the identified priority species through the establishment of species/provenance trials in the different regions of the country. 

1 . Identification of priority bamboo species -The enormous amount of variability available in bamboos and its economic value makes bamboos the most desirable group to be worked upon for its genetic improvement. Variability is an essential ingredient for making genetic improvement programme a success through recurrent selection. Initially, however, it is important to choose the species that will be studied. Selection shall depend on the breeding objective or the planned end use. 

At present, the bamboo species that can be considered commercially important in the country are the following: Bambusa blumeana, Bambusa sp. (bayog), Bambusa sp. 2 (laak), Gigantochloa levis, Dendrocalamus asper, Bambusa vulgaris, Gigantochloa after and Schizostachyum lumampao. The important traits for improvement are growth parameters such as length of culm, length of internode, hollowness or solidness of the culm, and anatomical features. Resistance to pest and diseases and durability are also very important factors to be considered. The selection para-meters can be different for bamboos used for paper and pulp than for banana props or for construction purposes .

2. Provenance trials of the priority bamboo species - The high productivity of a plantation depends on the correct choice of species/ provenance and sites, followed by appropriate silviculture and management. Species and provenance trials on tropical sites is a must as a basis for large scale afforestation. It is also important to be assured of broad genetic bases for improved generation and to get the largest, cheapest and fastest gains in bamboo improve-ment programme. Species and provenance trials shall be established in the field to determine the best populations for commercial planting by examining the extent and pattern of variation between and within species for survival and productivity. Provenance trial is also needed to analyze geographic variability for usefulness and the production of desired products in relevant sites. During the trials, it is essential that each species be kept apart and clearly labelled at all stages of the investigation. 

The place of origin of all the materials to be used in the species and provenance trials must be recorded. Nationwide collection of selected species shall be conducted and collection shall focus on 4 to 6 provenances per species. Trial site selection shall be conducted and provenance trials shall be established in 4 geoclimatic zones of the country. Trial establishment for each site shall follow a randomized complete block design with 4 blocks using a factorial of 5 species x 4 provenances for each species or a total of 20 treatment combinations per block and 80 total plots. Data on the performance of each species and provenance included in the trials shall be collected and analyzed. Reports on the results of the early performance of the species and provenances included in the trials shall be prepared and published. 

The natural forests have been the main source of bamboo supply so far. But with over-exploitation and consequently the reduction of the species habitat, the resource has depleted at an alarming rate. A reliable strategy to ensure sustained availability of bamboos is to raise them on a mass scale in plantations. Although there are examples of successful attempts for the establishment of bamboo plantations, these are largely isolated and technology standardization has not been achieved for most of the species. More of the basic aspects of bamboo have to be explored. Critical taxonomic accounts as a basis for further development of the resources have to be worked out. In addition, the habitat, acreage, population density, uses and economic potentials of each species have to be determined. Centers of origin or centers of diversity have not been identified for many bamboo species. 

The available data suggest that no living collection of bamboos has been designed with regard to conservation of genetic resources, hence, it can not be regarded yet as prototype genebank. The ex situ conservation of bamboo is currently inadequate. Several bambusetums exist, but these were set up to be representative species collections, hence, have ignored ranges of genetic diversity. Management of collections for conservation purposes should involve a number of applied aspects, e.g. regeneration, induced flowering of bamboos in vitro and maintenance of representative variation. Breeding and genetic improvement of bamboos in the Philippines is still in its infancy. Bamboos flower and fruit infrequently, hence, propagation by rhizomes, culm, and/or branch cuttings are usually resorted to. The progeny, therefore, is usually identical. On the other hand, there is a large intraspecific variation in many wild growing species and even in some cultivated species. Thus, there is a need to do in situ conservation of these species in natural ecosystems to help in preserving inter-specific and intra-specific genetic variabilities. Conservation of provenance in natural habitat is the best conservation method provided the stands are given full protection. 

With regard to genetic improvement, selection of superior strains and improved cultivation methods should be done to enhance economic production. Genetic enhancement of bamboo should be imperative and priorities must be developed quickly Breeding for wider adaptability should become a medium-term aim. 

Brown, W.H. and A. F. Fischer. 1920. Philippine Bamboos. Minor Products of Philippine 1Forests. Bureau of Forestry, Manila, Philippines. 

Bumarlong, A. A. and Tamolang, EN. 1980. The Philippines (Country Report). Bamboo Research. IDRC, Ottawa, Canada. 

Generalao, M. L. and D. C. Cacanindin. 1990. Early growth and Survival of bayog as affected by Fertilization and Planting Position. Pp. 51-59. in Proceedings of the 2nd National Bamboo R & D Symposium held Dec. 14,1990 at ERDB, College, Laguna. 

Hoanh, N. H. 1992. Effect of Complete fertilizer (14-14-14) on the performance of Bambusa blumeana in Mt. Makiling. Pp. in Proceedings of the Third National Bamboo R & D Symposium held April 27-28,1992 at ERDB, College, Laguna. 

Johnson, Peyton. 1990. Neglected bamboo now getting second look. The Philippine Lumberman. Sept.-Oct. Pp. 15-16. 

Merrill, E. D. 1923-26. Enumeration of Philippine Flowering Plants. 4 Vol. Bur. Print. Manila.   

Pancho, J. V. aand S. R. Obien. 1988. New Records of bamboos for the Philippines. The Philippine Agriculturists. 71(2): 199-220. Phil. Bamboos.

Santos, J. V.1986. Guide to Phil. Flora and Fauna. NRMC and 1986 Univ. of Phils. M. C. Press, Inc.

Tamolang F.N. and A.A. Bmarlong. 1980. The Philippines (Country Report) Bamboo Research. IDRC, Ottawa, Canada.

Uchimura, E. 1977. Ecological Studies on Cultivation of Bamboo Forest in the Phils. ERDB, Library, College, Laguna.

Ueda, 1961. Bamboo with Reference to Practical Application. Kansai Branch, Forest Expt. Station 1.

Virtucio F.D. et al. 1984. Survival anf Growth of Giant Bamboo (G. aspera) and Bayog (dendrocalamus merrillianus) as affected by Site preparation, method of prpagation and fertilization. Progress Report, ERDB,College, Laguna.

Acknowledge

The author expresses her thanks to Dr.Emilio A. Rosario, National Project Director,Bamboo Research and Development Project (PHI/85/008)and OIC-Director, Ecosystems Research and Development Bureau, for his trust, full support an cooperation.

Sincere thanks are aslo extended to Dr. K. Vivekanandan, Dr. Felizrdo D. Virtucio an Forest Paulino A. Umali, Jr., for their guidance, assistance and cooperation; Dr. Neptale Q. Zabala and For. Manolito U. Sy, for reviewing and editing the document.

Lastly, thanks are due to Ms. Fe F.Cortiguerra and the staff of the GIS Unit (ERDB) for theirassistance in the preparation of this report.

Forest Department

Rajamalwatta Road, Battaramula

Sri Lanka

Sri Lanka lies between 5" 55’ and 9" 55’ North latitude and 79.41’ and 81 .54’ East longitude. The total land area of the island is 6.4 million hectares. The island has two clearly defined climatic zones, the dry zone and wet zone with an intermediate zone in between. The central massif which divides the island into two basic climatic zones intercepting the monsoonal winds, creating an ever wet south-western quarter and a rain shadow in the remaining area. Nearly 66 percent (2/3rd) of the island constitutes the dry zone which consists mainly of flat and undulating land. The wet zone is situated in the south and south western region of the island and consists of coastal plains and very rugged mountainous terrain rising up to an elevation of 2750 metres. The mean monthly temperature varies from 30°C in the lowlands to 20°C in the highlands over 2500 metres. The annual rainfall varies from 1250 mm to 1850 mm in the dry zone and 2500 mm to 5000 mm in parts of the wet zone. The total population is nearly 17 million people. 

Of the 6.4 million hectares of land in Sri Lanka, 4.2 million hectares fall in the dry zone and 1.5 million hectares in the wet zone while about 0.9 million hectares are in the intermediate zone. According to an indicative forest inventory in 1993, the extent of natural forests in the three zonesareas follows. 

Dry Zone.............................................1.12 million ha. 

Wet Zone......................................…..0.12 million ha.

Intermediate zone. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .0.24 million ha. 

Several categories of forests have been distinguished by visual interpretation of satellite imagery (Legg and Jewel1 1995) and Table 1 shows these different categories. 

It is clear from the above that most of the areas of the natural forests have insufficient numbers or volume to support commercial logging in a sustainable manner (Table 2). While some of these forests should remain undisturbed to regenerate and grow for wood production, the rest should be managed to conserve biodiversity in them and for watershed protection. 

A National Conservation Review undertaken by the Forest Department has identified the forest areas that need to be conserved in view of their biological importance, largely in terms of species diversity. Completion of the conservation review in the wet zone has provided the basis to open informal discussions on the future management of natural forests in the wet zone. At present an extent of more than 60,000 ha. of natural forests which account for 87% woody plant diversity, equivalent to 85% endemic woody plant diversity, and at least 81% animal diversity is being earmarked to be managed as conservation forests. To compensate the loss in timber production from the natural forests, large extent of man-made forests including about 135,000 ha. of plantations mainly of teak, eucalyptus and pine have been established (Forest Department 1994) 

The country has a population of about 17 million which is predominantly rural (82.3%). During past years, the population growth rate has been declining, and in 1993 was estimated to be 1.0%. However, the "Wet Zone" which covers 23.7 percent of Sri Lanka’s land area, contains 54.7 percent of the total population of the country at a mean density of 583 persons per sq. kilometer. A recent indicative inventory shows that the wet zone forest region, the most biologically diverse category, is occupying less than 10% of the total area. There is increased pressure on land and other resources resulting in a rapid decline of forest areas in the country. The rural communities use the forest resources for income and subsistence. Forest clearing to plant agricultural crops is the base for almost all subsistence or income  generating activity other than forest products extraction. A recent study undertaken (IUCN 1995) to investigate the degree of forest dependency has revealed the social and economic significance of the major traditional uses of forests. 

Fourteen species of bamboo have been reported to be growing in Sri Lanka (Senaratne 1956), distributed in all three major climatic zones. However, dry zone has fewer species which are mainly confined to river banks. The very dry areas do not have any bamboo. A recent revision by Soderstrom and Ellis (1988) reported only ten species are native to Sri Lanka. A remarkable feature however is the high degree of endemism (80%) with eight species being reported as unique to the country (Table 3). 

Bambusa bambos and Dendrocalamus strictus are confined to the dry zone of the country. Of these the latter is restricted in its distribution and is known only from one or two isolated forested areas such as Ritigala located in the North Central region of the country (FIG2). Recent survey estimated 2125 ha in extent mainly concentrated in Kalutara, Galle and Kegalle Districts. A third species Ochlandra stridula occurs in wet zone moist lands, cleared of rain forests and forest gaps. The remaining seven species are found in the high altitudinal montane area of the central hill country. Table 4 gives the locations of the in-situ conservation areas and major uses of bamboo in the country. 

There is no clear idea of the amount of bamboo available in the forest and established methodology for measuring such a scattered resource. However, the availability is fast decreasing due to increased demand and wasteful practices of harvesting. Only the pliable culms are used while the mature culms are discarded, even though these can be used for other purposes. There is no appreciable demand for many species as the industries to use them as raw materials have not been developed. Further, it is considered as a weed when found in plantations and its eradication is promoted. The situation is worsened by the activities of middlemen who organize regular supplies. Large quantities are transported to cities down the rivers and by road. A royalty of 25 cts. per culm is recovered when bamboo is harvested from crown forests. The figures for bamboo harvesters from the state forests are given in Table 5. Although, on national scale, Ochlandra stridula is becoming scarce, it can still be found abundantly in a few localities. 

It is reported that about 13 species of introduced bamboo species are available in Sri Lanka of which about 3 species are cultivated extensively (Vivekanandan 1987). Among them, the yellow bamboo, Bambusa vulgaris is widely cultivated in the wet zone, mostly in river banks and streams and is largely used in the housing and construction sectors. The bamboo species cultivated in Sri Lanka and their uses are given in Table 6. As there is a threat to the majority of the bamboo species available in Sri Lanka, it is necessary to consider all the areas of bamboo as in situ genetic conservation reserves, which comprise both state and private lands. In this regard, it is imperative to draw up legislative and policy measures to provide incentives for conserving bamboo resources available in private lands. Although permits are required to extract bamboo culms from state forest, adequate measures are not available for the sustainable management of the resource. The approximate extent and the distribution of in situ genetic conservation areas of bamboo in Sri Lanka are given in Table 7.

Although Bambusa vulgaris appears to be in plenty, the harvest is more than the planting, depleting the resource rapidly. Dendrocalamus giganteus is cultivated only on a small scale especially in the wet high lands and common in the vicinity of waterways. 

Dendrocalamus strictus was introduced by the Forest Department as a source of fibre for the paper industry. The total extent under D. strictus is estimated at 2750 acres as a pure crop and 888 acres as a mixed crop with eucalyptus. The remaining 10 species are not cultivated but are found in the 3 botanic gardens of the country. The list of the exotic species established in the three Botanic Gardens is given in Table 8. 

At present, there is no proper system of documentation in use for the conservation areas. However, bamboo plantations raised by the Forest Department are documented and plantation journals are maintained with extent, location and other details. 

Bamboos can be propagated from seeds and by vegetative methods such as culm section, rhizome cutting, root offset and tissue culture. Most of the vegetative propagation methods have been traditionally practised in Sri Lanka. However,    these methods are gradually replaced by new and better propagation techniques after the research findings of the IDRC funded project on bamboo and rattan in 1988.

Seeds. The utilization of seed for planting stock production is economically and genetically sound. Seedlings produced from seed can be planted in the field early as they attain 5 - 10 cms in height in 2 - 3 months and about a meter in a year. The genetic variability of species is often better maintained when seeds are used in producing planting stock. Procurement of bamboo seed is a limiting factor in the propagation of bamboo using seed. In addition to irregular flowering behaviour of most bamboo species, bamboo seed viability is short. In Sri Lanka, only Ochlandra stridtrla species is propagated from seed on large scale for planting stock production. This species produces fertile seeds throughout the year. Seeds are collected when they turn yellow and sown immediately in wet loose soil. Germination occurs in 3 weeks. Some seeds produce 2 - 3 plants per seed. Separation of these plants similar to offset however, has not been tried in this species. 

Culm section. It is a traditional method of propagating B. vulgaris in Sri Lanka. The villagers select a matured culm from the clump. The culm is cut into sections about 3 ft. long and planted adjacent to stream and paddy fields. With the recent research findings however, B. vulgaris is best propagated in large scale by using 2 - 3 year old culm. The culm is sectioned (FIG 3) of about 15 -20 cm long with one node or bud per section. Each section is split carefully with special attention on the side with a node or bud as it should have 5 cm distance from each side of the node. The part which has no node or bud is discarded. The split with node or bud are potted directly in polyethylene bags (15 x 3 cm) filled with top soil and coir dust (1:5). They are kept moist and fully shaded at all times. They are gradully exposed to sunlight as plant develops. Shoot appears within a week and roots in 3 - 4 weeks. The seedlings are ready for field planting after 3 - 4 months in the nursery. 

Rhizome cutting and root offset. These methods are usually practiced by villagers when propagating bamboo in small scale. Rhizome cutting is the only method of propagating Dendrocalamus strictus. Part of the rhizome bearing young shoot or root offset is removed from the clump and immediately transplanted in moist and shaded location. The procedure is simple but costly as only a single plant is produced from each rhizome. It is also destructive to the mother clump as rhizome removal decreases clump productivity. 

Offset. This method requires seedlings. Seedlings of 10 - 12 weeks old and with 34 offsets were separated by cutting the rhizome between them. They are immediately potted using any media, kept in total shade and watered regularly Partial shading is neccessary after offsets have established themselves. This procedure can be repeated for several cycles to keep seedling at juvenile stage. Some exotic bamboo species such as Thyrsostachys sianzensis and Dendrocalamtrs membranaceus are successfully propagated by offset method (Tilakaratna 1992). 

Tissue culture. This method of bamboo propagation is still at the initial stage in Sri Lanka. It is carried out by several institutions on experimental basis. Recently, the Plant Genetic Resources Centre (PGRC) succeeded in propagating D. asper by tissue culture utilizing imported seed. Although the IDRC project has contributed with information on taxonomy, distribution and utilization of bamboo in Sri Lanka there are still many research gaps like propagation of local species, and funds and support should be sought to overcome these problems. 

Bamboo is a versatile material: (i) The strength of the culm (ii) straightness, smoothness and lightness combined with hardness (iii) their solidity or hollowness (iv) the ease with which they can be split and (v) the range sizes are the major qualities deciding their suitability for innumerable uses. The three main species of bamboo, widely used in Sri Lanka are Bambusa vulgaris and Dendrocalamtrs gigantetrs for scaffolding and rural housing and Ochlandra stridtrla which is used as a support for bean wines, basketry and woven ware. The main bamboo species harvested from the State Forests, is Ochlandra stridzrla. The information on the dependency on bamboo, collected from two villages is given in Table 9. Apart from Ochlandra stridzrla, other native bamboo species are of limited utility value which may explain the relatively low utilization of bamboo in Sri Lanka. 

Though bamboo is available in the village groves of Sri Lanka, it is grown by individuals in their back yards or on vacant places in the villages. As organized and managed bamboo plantations do not exist, no information is available on its profitability. However, it is estimated that bamboo producers obtain an annual net income of Rs. 5,000. 

A recent survey carried out by Forest Department has shown that about 79% of the people who harvest bamboo, process and use the products themselves. The manufactured products are mainly articles woven from bamboo strips such as, baskets, strainers, winnowing fans, blinds and tats for house hold use. Processing is simple and involves cleaning and splitting into long strips. In areas where Ochlandra stridula grows, whole culms are traditionally used as wattle; strips for tats, blinds and inner partition; and leaves for thatching particularly among the low income groups. Bamboo flutes are also made from the same species. 

The farmers cultivate bamboo on a small scale and the species they cultivate is mainly Bambusa vulgaris. It is widely used as wattle for crude temporary construction, such as out-houses, barns, shelters, watch huts, fencing and props. It is often used for small bridges and water pipes. The major demand for bamboo in housing is for scaffolding supports and props in the building sector within urban and new development areas. Currently, Bambusa vulgaris is used for modern products, such as baskets, vases, pencil & pen holders, kitchen containers, of decorative cum utility value. Most of the bamboo culms, people produce are sold for construction purposes. On a wholesale basis, bamboo is sold to the collectors at the rate of Rs. 15 per culm. Increasingly bamboos have become very important in the village life. It has become an integral part of village economy and is extensively used for cheap housing, fabricating items, domestic and agricultural use, scaffolding etc. The results of a survey on the involvement of people in bamboo industry, carried out by the Bamboo/Rattan Research Project with the assistance of the IDRC are tabled below (Table 10). 

Bamboo craftsmanship is based on ancient traditional uses for the manufacture of a wide variety of products. Skills in the industry have evolved over several centuries. These products are indispensable in the rural economy and their manufacture provides considerable employment and income generation opportunities for many engaged in this traditional cottage industry. 

At present, these three species though widely used are not cultivated systematically Cottage industry providing employment and the demand placed on the resource through the years has led to their over exploitation and thereby creating a situation where the resource has been diminished to a critical level and can collapse if remedial measures are not taken. It is felt that very soon the demand will outstrip supply and it is imperative to address the issue. 

Forest cover in Sri Lanka has decreased from an estimated 84% of country’s area in 1886 to 23% in 1992. The factors that have contributed to deforestation and forest degradation are extensive and complex. One of the main causes is the poverty, that is often associated with landlessness and poor land tenure system. Other causes being large agricultural settlement projects, with cultivation and excessive harvesting of forest products (MALF 1995). Pressure upon the forests will continue to increase due to enhancing population and economic growth. The alarming fact is that Sri Lanka, though a relatively small island, has a greater diversity of species per unit area than almost any other Asian country The wet zone forests are the gene reservoirs of Sri Lanka’s biodiversity heritage. Of the 3650 species of flowering plants known from Sri Lanka 840 are endemic and 94% of these are restricted to the wet and intermediate forests (MALF 1995). Moreover, the wet zone although it occupies only 24% of the country is settled by more than half of the population. In view of the importance of ecological conservation of the natural forests of Sri Lanka, a National Conservation Review was undertaken by the Forest Department to assess the biodiversity of natural forests in the country so as to establish a network of protected area system and the work is almost completed in the wet zone. 

A review of traditional uses of forests in Sri Lanka (IUCN 1994) indicates that a large number of forest fringe communities depend, often totally, upon the multiple values and resources provided by forests. Thus, it is imperative to recognize and accept the interdependence between communities and forests so that social values are clearly incorporated into and form a part of forest management programmes.The New National Forest Policy of 1995 has clearly acknowledged this fact and has underscored the importance of forest’s contribution to rural economy. In this context, Forest Department is now progressing towards defining a rational system of conservation in which biodiversity is adequately represented, watersheds important for soil conservation and hydrology are protected and economic and social needs are met. Forest Department plans initially, to identify forests suitable for pilot projects in which conservation and socioeconomic needs are addressed in an integrated manner through sustainable utilization of forest products. The management of forests for biodiversity conservation demands, development of suitable and practical methods to meet different needs, and new interventions in increasing benefits to local people in and around protected areas through joint management and other development activities. The operational policy of the conservation forest management is that the forests should contribute to the local economy through sustainable use of their products in so far as such practices are compatible with conservation objectives.

Bamboo plays an important role in socioeconomic development of the rural communities.Its qualities: strength, straightness, smoothness, brightness combined with hardness and variation in size have led to their multifarious uses in rural area. A wide range of bamboo commodities are essential to the smooth running of the rural economy, especially in agriculture, and their manufacture provides considerable employment and income generation opportunities in traditional cottage industry. Collection of Ochlandra by smugglers, for trade from certain localities, and the concentrated working on bamboo by villagers for their bonafide purposes from areas adjoining the villages cause degradation of the resource. Much damage is done by smugglers who almost clear fell the clumps. The limited ecological zone is a concern because haphazard exploitation of bamboo can easily result in depletion of this important plant community. Excessive exploitation and serious failure of regeneration have all but decimated the resource. Therefore urgent conservation action is needed not only for restoration of habitat of bamboo, but also for identification of in situ conservation areas. 

Background information on the exact area, extent and current status of bamboo is limited. This means that their protection and management are extremely difficult. A possible restoration measure is to carry out extensive planting of the species with the active participation of the local population, who would eventually have stake in the development and utilization of the bamboo resource. No serious cultivation of bamboo has been undertaken in Sri Lanka in the past. Bamboo is very suitable in stabilizing top soil and thus preventing soil erosion. There is a need to cultivate bamboo so as to diversify the supply base of our national resources. Sri Lanka is an agricultural country whose economy is based on agriculture and the emphasis on bamboo resource conservation is vital, as both soil and water are the basic resources on which agriculture depends. The study suggests four activities for the conservation and improvement of genetic resources of bamboo in Sri Lanka and these components are discussed in the following sections. 

The baseline information on bamboo resource is highly essentiaI for resource management.The IDRC supported a research project through the Forest Department and one of its key objectives was to determine the distribution and availability of bamboo species. Soderstom and Ellis (1988) reported ten native bamboo species in Sri Lanka (Table 3) and a remarkable feature is the high degree of endemism, of the ten species, eight species and one genus (Davidsea) are reported to be unique to the country. A detailed description of the distribution of the native bamboo species is given in part one of this report. However, it is necessary to carry out detailed mapping of the bamboo area both to estimate the bamboo resource and to evaluate its status. The present NCR undertaken by the FD with the assistance of IUCN can be the foundation to initiate such action. All the natural forests as defined in the 1:500000 scale Forest Map of Sri Lanka (1992) with at least 100 ha (this was later raised to 200 ha) of closed canopy were selected for inclusion in the NCR. Gradsect sampling system is used and 5m to 100m plots are laid down on a line transect to assess the diversity. Plot intervals vary from 100m to 200m     or more depending on the forest type and habitat characteristics. All the woody flora above 10cm DBH in each plot are recorded and faunal survey is limited to mammals, reptiles, birds, amphibians, fish,land molluscs and butterflies. The field data is fed into a computerized database and once analyzed provide the biodiversity of each forest area indicating its endemicity, rarity and uniqueness. 

The NCR of the natural forests of Sri Lanka has been completed in 90 forest blocks in the wet zone. Only 9 more forests remain to be completed. Wet zone includes montane, submontane zones and lowland rainforests which are reported to carry 8 out of 10 native bamboo species in Sri Lanka. First task is to evaluate the work carried out by the NCR upto now and analyze the available data with regard to the bamboo genetic resource. Then, a review on bamboo resource within natural forest, though patchy should be carried out and compared with the results of the NCR survey. This should be followed by ground-truthing to identify and estimate bamboo resources in the natural forests with respect to density and height classes. The area of different strata thus delineated can be utilized for stock mapping along with the supplementary phytosociological data. Remote sensing data in the form of large scale aerial photographs can be used to stratify the bamboo area in the natural forest. 

Implementation of this task can be assigned to the Environmental Management Division (EMD) of the Forest Department who have the manpower and skill in carrying out the resource inventory. Further the activity can be extended to the intermediate and dry zone following the completion of the NCR in the two regions. This information on the distribution of the bamboo species will then be used to zone out the forest areas that contain the populations that need to be evaluated in provenance trials and protected as in situ conservation areas. Provenance trials wil also be established if possible to explore the genetic variation of the bamboo species. 

The same division (EMD) can develop a bamboo database to incorporate all the data of the survey. Both bibliographical and non-bibliographical informations are important to serve all kinds of bamboo information users. Initially a database of basic knowledge can be developed with sub-systems to be incorporated subsequently. 

Sub-database of bamboo species

Sub-database of bamboo resources

Sub-database of bamboo utilization

Bamboo has been initially associated with humans since ancient times. The most important indigenous, endemic bamboo species in Sri Lanka supporting traditional cottage industry is OchIandra stridula. Extensive exploitation of the resource due to its diverse uses has threatened the valuable germplasm in natural locations. Therefore, there is an urgent need for identification of in situ conservation reserves based on the exploration and assessment activities mentioned under section 1 above and to check the depletion of bamboo resources. 

Bamboos seldom occur in pure stands but are generally found as an understorey species in lowland rain forest and montane forests. The underlying concept of conservation areas in Sri Lanka is to manage them effectively and sustainably to provide a wide range of goods and services for the benefit of those whose livelihood are most dependent on forest resources and for future generations (IUCN 1995). 

Natural forests produce a wealth of products which, traditionally, have been used by people living in the vicinity. Until recently, the vital role of non-industrial forest products (NIFP) in local economies had been overlooked in planning, as a result villagers have been denied their traditional rights of access to such products as forests which have been reserved by the state for commercial production or conservation purposes. This has  lead to feelings of resentment towards the authorities and even retaliation, quite apart from the loss of traditional botanical and other indigenous knowledge passed on orally for generations. Knowledge on the status of the resource and its local uses would ensure management planning in the interest of both conservation and local economy. The new National Forest Policy provides overriding priority to this concept, however needs to be enforced by making appropriate changes to the existing legislation. Detailed management plans for the bamboo in situ conservation areas need to be developed in natural forests that have been identified for this purpose and after the inventory of the growing stock. 

Pilot projects have to be established to study bamboo forests with objectives to: 

Further, studies should commence to investigate the quantity of the bamboos used by people in the vicinity to find out:

3. Ex situ conservation of genetic resources of bamboo species

The bamboo resources in Sri Lanka are beingdepleted rapidly due to increasing demand consequently over cutting, loss of habitats due toagriculture developments and settlements andgregarious flowering. If the present rate and trendof consumption continues, bamboo may well bea scarce commodity in the not too distant future. A possible restoration measure is to carry outextensive planting of the species with activeparticipation of local population, who have a stakein the development and utilization of the bambooresources. This can be achieved by promotingbamboo species through both social forestry andhomestead development programmes.

With the shrinking of natural habitats ofbamboo resources, due to agricultural velopmentand human settlements, overcutting and irregular seeding habits, in situ conservation efforts haveto be complemented with suitable ex situ conservation programmes. The bamboo species may be planted in locations outside the distribution range of the parent population. This measure is articularly important on valuable species where overexploitation is evident within its natural range.The species d populations selected for ex situconservation should be based on the assessment nservation/exploration mentioned under 1. EXsitu conservation programme with a single objective, that is genetic nservation, can be expensive and difficult to justify in Sri Lanka. In addition, the nature of the resource - capable of multiplying itself, and removal of some matured culm under management plan improve clump owth, allows flexibility in the programme design to accomodate several objectives without jeopardizing the main objective - to conserve the genetic resources of bamboo.

The programme can be designed in two parts.

Part 1: Strict ex situ conservation - to meet conservation objectives along with other objectives such as protection of the area from soil erosion or wind, extension and education, and with appropriate supervision and management, as asource of planting materials for dissemination. It can be carried out by planting in areas such as periphery of water tanks, catchments, streams, rivers, reserves and other areas where protection, supervision and management are possible.

Part 2: Non-strict ex situ conservation - to meet (the same objectives as in Part 1 and with propermanagement to provide raw materials for cottageindustries. Hence, direct or indirect participation of the local people with a stake in the development and utilization of bamboo resources should be possible. It can be carried out by extensive planting in similar areas as in Part 1 or private lands. This activity can be incorporated in social forestry and homestead development programmes with the objective of conserving the genetic material at thesame time allowing extraction of raw materials forvarious purposes under a known managementscheme. This part will be done at a minimum levelas it is difficult to implement. Yet, it is importantto consider for the success of promoting bamboodevelopment which justifies conservation of genetic resources of bamboo in Sri Lanka.

At present, the status of cultivation of bamboo in this country is not encouraging. Utilization however, is rapidly increasing posing threat to bamboo genetic base.

Presently Forest Department is implementing, the Participatory Forestry Project with assistance mainly from the ADB. This involves participation of local community in developing private woodlots and forestry farms and promoting non-forest tree planting. State land on a 25 years leasehold, and food aid for labour inputs are among the incentives provided to the farmers. Bamboo should be promoted as one of the major species under this programme. 

Bamboo is very much suitable in stabilising top soil and thus preventing soil erosion. Thus, bamboo has proven to be ideal for fragile ecosystems such as canal banks, and riverine areas. Because of its fast and intensive rhizome development it is used for quick stabilisation work in erosion prone areas. However, no serious cultivation has been undertaken in Sri Lanka in the past. There is a need to cultivate bamboo so as to diversify the supply base. Furthermore, this would answer the key objectives of: 

1 . alleviating the pressure on the forest resource by increased awareness of the multifarious uses of bamboo;

2. enhancing the contribution of forestry to the welfare of the rural population and strengthening the national economy;  

This study proposes successful cultivation of bamboo in soil erosion prone areas particularly for soil and water conservation. Extent available under stream reservations and canal banks can be mapped using latest landuse maps available at the Remote Sensing Centre. These data can be broken down by districts and verified through ground checks. Currently, a National Land Use consultant under the PFP is conducting a land identification and assessment study for the establishment of farmers’ woodlots, protective woodlots, and nurseries. This is a very intensive exercise carried out by Grama Niladaris’ at Divisional Secretary level. A similar study is proposed to identify and prepare land use maps of stream and canal reservations available in the country. This could also include catchment areas of major reservoirs under the Mahaweli and other irrigation projects. 

Tree growing on these identified lands will be undertaken in a phased programme and will be promoted by providing: 

1 . tree tenure rights to farmers; 

2. seedlings required; 

3. suitable high yielding bamboo species;

4. other support services through systematic dissemination and promotion campaign; 

5 . more latitude in the choice of species; and 

6 . artisan training at the village level and developing both traditional and modern bamboo based industries; 

Most of these reserved areas are reported to be encroached by the farmers. These farmers have been cultivating paddy and other cash crops right upto the bank of the canal. The cultivation of tree crops such as bamboo would assure the protection of the reservation. Planting bamboo does not disturb the soil in the reservations and its root structure would stabilise the bunds. 

Farmers can be successfully persuaded to switch on to the cultivation of bamboo by granting them certain rights or tree tenure right. Farmers can harvest the culms without disturbing the soil and assure the benefits therein. 

In this context, there are two important interventions from which experience can be gained. First, the participatory holistic approach to land and water management in a watershed context adopted by the Shared Control of National Resources (SCOR) project implemented by the International Irrigation Management Institute (IIMI) in collaboration with Government of Sri Lanka. SCOR is testing a strategy to increase the     sustainable productivity of land and water resource base in Sri Lanka in ways that will equitably improve the livelihood of the people now and in the future with due regard to the environment. The strategy involves all the families in a village in sharing the effort to change the present land use to a high income and resource-conserving land use (Wijayaratna 1994). 

Under SCOR interventions, the farmers who have encroached canal reservations, have now agreed to ensure the protection of the reservations by planting perennial plants, provided they are guaranteed the tenure rights. The working group, formulated to look into the tree tenure rights to farmers has agreed to consider making arrangements to guarantee tree tenurial rights to farmers on the basis of a long term agreement (25 yrs) modelled on similar arrangements that already exist with the Forest Department. An agreement incorporating these conditions and also the relevant conditions already approved by the Government in the case of the Forest Department has been drafted by the committee. This state-user partnership and shared control mechanism would be the starting point for introducing bamboo species along streams and canal reservations throughout the country. As an initial step, Forest Department in collaboration with relevant Government agencies operating in the area and private organizations, can commence moving out the locally available reservation areas in a selected few districts. 

The second model which the project could build upon would be the novel-organizational and institutional arrangements developed under the programme of the Ministry of Lands, Agriculture and Forestry "AMA" . 

"AMA" is the designation given to the implementation strategy of the National Policy Framework (NPF) of the Ministry of Lands, Agriculture and Forestry The proposed strategy includes organizational and institutional mechanisms and produces specific programmes and activities for implementation, new approaches and also certain key indicators for the impact of the NPF and the sustainability of its implementation. Amongst many organizational structures and procedures, AMA programme envisages to establish adequate mechanisms at the local community level to mobilize local support for agreed development plans and objectives and perform services for their members and develop local leadership authority. Under this programme the existing former organizations will be restructured and strengthened to manage their own affairs, Forest Department can make use of the unified extension service proposed under the "AMA" programme in providing support services and inputs to the farmers’ organizations, to promote and develop participatory forestry activities proposed under the project. 

Participatory management involves some form of cooperative arrangement between the state and local people which empowers them to assure a degree of control and responsibility for natural resources. Government of Sri Lanka has clearly recognized and accepted the dependence between communities and forest and the incorporation of social values into the planning process as critical to the success of conservation forest management. Local communities need to be trained in conservation principles and ecologically sustainable bamboo management practices. The technical capacities of Forest Department staff will be strengthened by training in inventory, evaluation and conservation, information and participatory management. 

The activities that can be undertaken through the farmers’ organization (FO): 

1. Bamboo seedlings can be raised on a large scale in people’s nurseries by providing inputs such as seeds, bags and technical know how. 
2. FOs can be involved in the identification and marking out the reservations for planting with bamboo. 
3. FOs will act as a powerful agency for a systematic dissemination and promotion campaign. On farm training of the farmers can be a part of promotion of the programme. 
4. FOs can be involved in promoting bamboo in rural areas. They will be in a better position to provide good quality bamboo seedlings, technical know how and also arrange for the marketing of the produce. 
5. Successful bamboo plantations raised by FOs can help in generating data on the economics of raising bamboo plantations. 

FO members have to be trained to enhance their skills in the development of both traditional and modern bamboo based industries. The production-protection model described above could be tested and validated on a pilot scale. By locating the sites in the buffer zone of one or two forest areas identified for in situ conservation of bamboo resources would not only alleviate pressure on the natural resource but also provide opportunities for expanding existing conservation measures through production as an incentive for protection. Assessment of the effectiveness and cost benefit of these interventions would ensure replicability and sustainability of the programme. 

The Government of Sri Lanka recognizes that rural communities should be partners in the management of the country’s natural resources; it also accepts that in this process some degree of control and responsibility be given to specific interest groups. The institutional mechanism and the concept of the "AMA" programme of the Ministry of Lands, Agriculture and Forest and the involvement of "Resource use Groups" through tree-tenure agreements offers a potential model for developing tree resources at the village level. Under the above arrangement it is envisaged that the local people are effectively empowered as genuine partners of local management control and responsibility. This is a long way from the rhetorical form of participatory management and refers to an approach which gives local people rights and also assists them develop the capacity to analyze situations, find solutions and produce responses to key issues and thus participate in the management process. 

Social mobilization needs to be carried out at the village level to stimulate local people to initiate the process of participatory management. The project could build up on the training programme currently underway through the "AMA". Articulate individuals who are committed, have leadership and are accepted by the community should be given social mobiliser training who can promote the effective organization of the community for participatory management. As the role of the Forest Department staff has to shift from a protective stance to one of community liaison, it is essential that Forest Department staff are properly trained and supported for their new role. 

Despite the importance of bamboo in the rural economy of Sri Lanka, its large scale cultivation and utilization is limited, largely due to inadequate research and development activities related to propagation, plantation management and utilization. With increased recogntion of the importance of bamboo, the IDRC Project was initiated in the year 1986 (Vivekanandan 1987). This project generated a considerable amount of much needed technology on propagation and planting. The research staff of the Forest Department, since the commencing of the project in 1984 were engaged in research and development activities related to: 

1. Propagation techniques 
2. Establishment of trial plots 
3. Market studies and economics of bamboo plantations and, 
4. Transfer of suitable techniques and technologies to the identified users and the protection of bamboo natural plantations. 

However, there is much work needs to be done for the conservation of bamboo genetic resource. This can be achieved through a two fold strategy First, by providing access for rural people for the sustainable use of raw material after piloting appropriate modules and modalities. Second, by intensifying the promotion and cultivation of economically valuable species that have been already established and by the introduction of potential new species. In this context, the following research considerations are suggested, aiming at promoting the cultivation and utilization of bamboo in Sri Lanka. 

1. Establish guidelines for sustainable manage-ment of existing wild resources, in particular for the native 0. stridula. To date, no systematic study has been done on the management of bamboo for shoot production. The effect of different harvesting intensities on the ’ performance and yield of O.strdula has to be studied. The conversion of existing natural stands into managed clumps is one of the major research needs. Further, detailed investigations are needed to determine both silvicultural and ecological requirements of the native species and management strategies for augmenting Door areas. As the information of inventory and distribution is still in as alternatives to the commonly used species. minuscule quantity, full scale inventory Amongst the important properties to be coupled with thorough studies on phenology explored are anatomical, chemical, physical, and taxonomy are required.
2. Promote the cultivation of useful species close to major use locations along rivers and stream reservations, drainage lines, channel bunds, paddy field bunds and in other water logged areas. This will not be a difficult task because mass propagation techniques are available for the extensively used 0. stridula and Bambusa vulgaris.

Studies on planting should be expanded covering the suitability of degraded lands and effects of various soil conditions and localities on the growth performance of bamboos. Research should also be initiated for under planting monoculture plantations of Pinus, Eucalyptus and Acacia with species of bamboo. 

3. Initiate a programme for the introduction of newer species of value to supplement the present supply of bamboo raw material. In this regard, Ministry of Indigenous Medicine has already initiated a programme for propagation of B. bambos with seeds obtained from India. Few other species that can be recommended for investigation are, B. polymorpha, B. tulda, B. nutans, D. strictus, D. hamiltonii, D. brandisii, Gigantochloa atter and G. levis.

In addition, it is imperative that species which can be used for non-familiar uses to be introduced and popularized. Species that could be used as raw material for the paper industries or for the production of edible shoots, as structural components should be given priority. Pilot plantation establishment should be intensified to capture variability of growth and yield performance of the different species in various parts of the country The growth and clump development in pilot plantations should be continuously monitored for management purposes. 

4. Initiate a programme of reserch to improve the durability,strength and life and other useful characteristice of bamboo for construction purposes.While some bamboos are commercially utilized,The less popular species need to be studied intensively in order to assess their potential and to promoto them as alternative to the commonly useful species.Amongst the important properties to be explored are anatomical,physical,mechanical, and bonding characters.
5. Macropropagation using segmented culms, although successful with many of the important species, can be further improved to maximize the use of planting material and minimize the cost of planting stock production. Further research on "difficult to root" species should focus on reducing container size, size of planting material and determination of rooting media and fertilizer requirements. 
6. Initiate a programme on assessment, exploration and evaluation of the bamboo genetic resources. Provenance trials will be established to explore the genetic variation and will guide the in situ and ex situ conservation activities detailed out in the project. In addition, this programme would form the base line for the programme on genetic improvement. 
7. Initiate a programme for genetic improvement of bamboo species of utility value. Since sexual reproduction is unpredictable in bamboo, vegetative reproduction methods have to be used for genetic improvement work. First, provenance trials need to be carried out. This would involve identification of distinct geographical areas, collection of propagules and planting of provenance trials with replications. Second, superior provenances will be selected based on the performance. A base population will be established using propagules from superior clumps. Planting material from the improved base population can be used for planting programmes. 

The overall goal is to institute participatory forest management with local people in order to maintain those in situ conservation reserves so that they continue to contribute to sustainable rural development and remain as part of the genetic resource of Sri Lanka. 

The guiding principles are as follows: 

1 . To preserve the genetic resources and their range of variation. 

2. To involve local communities in the planning and management processes. 

3 . To accommodate traditional resource use Current Research. (IV. Ramanuja Rao and R. patterns and land rights. Gnanalaran, eds). IDRC, India.

4. To direct the benefits of conservation towards local communities. De Zoysa, N. and K. Vivekanandan. 1992. The bamboo and rattan cottage industry in Sri Lanka: Livelihood in Danger. Forest Department. Sri Lanka.

5. To integrate the management plans with the socioeconomic development of the communities. Forest Department. 1991. Final Report. IDRC-Bamboo/ Rattan Research Project. Sri Lanka.

6 . Management practices should consider all products obtainable from the forest land and also aesthetic values of finished products. Forest Department. 1994. The Administration Report of the Conservator of Forests. Sri Lanka. 

Forests will be zoned on the basis of their diversity and socioeconomic surveys so as to provide a range of services: strict protection, sustainable use of forest products, research, education and tourism. Zoning is a useful tool when done in a participatory manner to classify the forest resources according to the need for protection, level or intensity of management and their capacity to accommodate traditional or public use. International Union for the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN) 1995. Conservation Management Plan for Dellawa Forest. Unpublished. Sri Lanka. IUCN. 1995. Traditional Use of Natural Forests in Sri Lanka - A National Survey Sri Lanka. Legg C. and N. Jewell. 1995. ANew 1:500,000 scale forest map of Sri Lanka. The Sri Lanka Forester. Special Issue. 

The zoning system proposed for these forests is a basic step in management planning as it schematically outlines the type of management regime and development activities appropriate for the area. In demarcating the area as protected core zone within the in situ conservation area, the priority will be given to the preservation of the genetic variation of bamboo species. Provenance trials will if possible be established to assess, explore and evaluate the bamboo species. The rest of the conservation area will be placed under participatory management where utilization will be permitted for local purposes in accordance with the principles of sustainability with due consideration to the conservation of genetic resources. Legal provisions should be made and regulations should be amended to aim at management. The stakeholder should be identified and users rights accommodated and a participatory management mechanism should be established. Integrated conservation and development programmes should be designed and implemented and innovative approaches in participatory management need to be employed. Ministry of Agriculture, Lands & Forestry (MALF). 1995. National Agricultural Policy Framework. Sri Lanka. Ministry of Agriculture, Lands and Forestry (MALF). 1995. Sri Lanka Forestry Sector Master Plan. Sri Lanka. Senaratne, S.D.J.E. 1956. The grasses of Ceylon. Sri Lanka. Soderstrom, J.R. and Ellis, R.P. 1988. The Woody Bamboos of Sri Lanka:A Morphological and Anatomical Study Smithsonian Contrib. No.72. Tilakaratne D. 1992. Multiplication of bamboo seedlings by offset separation. Pp. l0-15 in Proceedings of the 3rd MPTS Workshop. (H.I?M. Gunasena, eds). Sri Lanka. Vivekanandan, K. 1987. Bamboo Research in Sri Lanka. Pp. 61-66 in Recent Research on Bamboos. (A.N. Rao, G. Dhanarajan and C.B. Sastry, eds). IDRC, Canada. 

De Zoysa, N. Upeksha Hettige and K. Vivekanandan. 1990. Some aspects of bamboo and itsutilization in Sri Lanka. Pp. 6-12 in Bamboo Current Research. (I. V. Ramanuja Rao and R. Gnanalaran, eds). IDRC, India.

De Zoysa, N, and K, Vivekandan. 1992. The bamboo and rattan cottage industry in Sri Lanka; Livelihood in Danger. Forest Department. Sri Lanka.

Forest Department. 1991. Final Report. IDRC-Bamboo/Rattan Research Project. Sri Lanka.

Forest Department. 1994. The Administration Report of the Conservator of Forests. Sri Lanka.

International Union for the Conservation of Nature and Natural Research (IUCN). 1995. Conaervation Management Plan for Dellawa Forest. Unpublished. Sri Lanka.

IUCN. 1995. Traditional Use of Natural Forests in Sri Lanka- A National Survey. Sri Lanka.

Legg C. and N. Jewell. 1995. A New 1:500,000 scale forest map of Sri Lanka. The Sri Lanka Forester Special Issue.

Ministry of Agriculture. Lands & Forest (MALF).1995.National Agricultural Policy Framework. Sri Lanka.

Ministry of Agriculture. Lands and Forestry (MALF). 1995. Sri Lanka Forestry Sector Master Plan. Sri Lanka.

Senaratne, S.D.J.E. 1956. The grasses of Ceylon. Sri Lanka.

Soderstrom, J.R.and Eills, R.P. 1988. The Woody Bamboos of Sri Lanka: A Morphological and Anatomical Study. Smithsonian Contrib. No.72.

Tilakaratne D. 1992. Multiplication of bamboo seedings by offset separation. Pp. 10-15 in Proceedings of the 3 rd MPTS Workshop. (H.P.M.Gunasena, eds). Sri Lanka.

Vivekanandan, K. 1987. Bamboo Research in Sri Lanka. Pp. 61-66 in Recent Research on Bamboos. (A.N. Rao, G.Dhanrajan and C.B. Sastry, eds). IDRC, Canada.

Wijayaratna, C.M. 1994. Integrating Environmental and Conservation Concepts with Production Goals. SCOR. International Irrigation Management Insititute. Colombo, Sri Lanka.

1 . De Zoysa, N. Upeksha Hettige and K. Vivekanandan. 1990 Some asoects of bamboo and its utilization in Sri Lanka. Pp. 6-12 in Bamboo -Current Research. (I.V.R. Rao, R. Gnanaharan and C.B. Sastry). KFRI, Peachi and IDRC, Delhi. 

Attention is drawn in this paper to the urgent need to intensify the use of the bamboo resources in Sri Lanka through systematic management and the promotion of its use as a substitute for small timber. While two of the species, Ochlandra stridtrla and Bambusa vulgaris have been emphasized, several exotic species with high utility value suitable for Sri Lankan conditions are recommended for future introduction. 

2. De Zoysa, N and K. Vivekanandan. 1991. The Bamboo and Rattan cottage Industries in Sri Lanka-livelihoods in danger. Forest Department Sri Lanka. 

This report calls for a closer analysis of the bamboo and rattan based cottage industry. It contains an illustrated account of bamboo and rattant crafts as discussed in the Master Plan for Handicraft Development. However, this account of the industry attempts to go beyond the narrow focus to see the plants in a social context. 

3 . De Zoysa, N. 1994. Ochalandra stridula - A profile. Pp. 41-47 in Bamboo in Asia and the Pacific, FAO, Rome. 

This paper reviews the state of knowledge of 0. stridula in view of its economic importance in the rural sector. It is based on the findings of the IDRC supported research project which aimed at assessing the distribution and the availability of bamboo in Sri Lanka and developing mass-propagation techniques for economically important ones. The paper highlights the need for accurate information on plant resources. 

4. Forest Department 1988. Final Report. IDRC - Bamboo/Rattan Research Project. Sri Lanka pp. 88. 

The report records the progress of research activities carried out by the Research Division of the Forest Department under the IDRC -Bamboo/ Rattan Research Project 1984-1988 which was launched with the objective of increasing the production of bamboo and rattan species to supply the local industries. In this final report of the project, progress made from July 1984 to August 1988 is documented, achievements assessed and future priorities in research have been identified. 

5 . Forest Department. 1991. Final Report IDRC - Bamboo/Rattan Research Project. Sri Lanka pp. 42. 

The report documents the achievements made in the phase II of the IDRC -Bamboo/Rattan Research Project from January 1989 to December 1991. Activities involved a market study on bamboo and rattan, development of propagation techniques, the establishment of trial plots, economics of bamboo and rattan plantations, transfer of validated techniques and technologies to the identified users and the protection of bamboo and rattan natural populations. 

6 . International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources. 1995. Traditional use of Natural Forests in Sri Lanka - A National Survey Vol. I & II pp. 191. 

The report has documented the findings of a recently concluded National Survey of the Traditional Use of Forests. It has investigated the nature and spatial patterns of forest use and the degree of forest dependence by local people for forest based activities and their impact on forests in Sri Lanka. The study has elucidated the spread and character of traditional forest use activities including bamboo extraction and the intrinsic element of a traditional association between man and his forest environment in a typical Sri Lankan context. 

7 . Senaratne, S.D.J.E. 1956. The Grasses of Ceylon, Government of Sri Lanka, pp. 22-30. 

A comprehensive account of Grasses of Sri Lanka. Twelve species of bamboo have been recorded. Of these nine are indigenous including 5 endemic species. The remaining three are cultivated species. 

8 . Shibata, A. 1984. Project report for the development of the bamboo and cane industry in Sri Lanka. Unpublished report. Department of Small Industries. Sri Lanka pp. 9. 

Report of a utilization agency aimed at promoting and expanding the bamboo industry. However, status and the situation of the raw material is not discussed. 

9 . Soderstrom, T.R. and Ellis, R.P. 1988. The Woody Bomboo (Poaceae Bambuseae) of Sri Lanka: A Morphological-Anatimical study. Smithsonian - Contribution to Botany. No. 72, pp. 75. 

Illustrated descriptions are given of 12 species in 6 genera of bamboos. Keys are included to the subtribes, genera and species where relevant to Sri Lanka. Description of some widely cultivated species are not included. 

10. Sumithraarachhi, D.B., Upeksha Hettige and N. De Zoysa. 1993. Bamboo for Housing inSri Lanka, Royal Botanic Gardens Peradeniya, Sri Lanka pp.46. 

A guide to identify fourteen species of bamboo that are suitable for use by the construction industry are described in this document. 

11. Swarnamalee, P.A. and K. Vivekanandan. 1994. The Bmboo Resource in Sri Lanka, In Bamboo in Asia and the Pacific. FAO. pp. 37-41. 

The authors have provided the results of a survey conducted to study the market demand and supply of bamboo, the quantity of yellow bamboo used for construction and other purposes in Sri Lanka during 1989 and 1990. 

12. Tilakaratne D. 1992. Multiplication of Bamboo Seedlings by Offset - Separation Proceedings of the 3rd. MPTS Workshop. Sri Lanka. 

A study on multiplication of bamboo seedlings by offset separation, successfully carried out for the species Thyrosfachys siamensis, Dendrocalamus membranaceus and Bambusa bambos is discussed in this paper. 

13. Trimen, H. 1990. A Handbook to the Flora of Ceylon. Dulau and Co. London. Vol. V313-319. 

Three species of bamboo, all belonging to the genus Bambusa have been reviewed. 

14. Vivekanandan, K. 1985. Bamboo Research in Sri Lanka. pp. 61-66 in Recent Research on Bamboos. (A.N. Rao, G.D.Dhanarajan and C.B. Sastru, eds.). CAF, China and IDRC, Singapore. 

The article gives an update of the bamboos in Sri Lanka and the status of research done under the auspices of the IDRC. A brief botanical description of the 14 species of bamboo recorded by Senaratne (1956) is given with a key to help in the identification. Research work carried out on the commonly used Bambusa vulgaris on the production of mass propagules for large scale cultivation is discussed. 

ERDB

College, Laguna 4031

Philippines

Rattan is one of the most economically important group of forest species after timber. The finished rattan products are highly sought for in the local and foreign markets and rattan industry has become a multimillion dollar business. Moreover, cultivation of rattan has become one of the healthiest industries among the nontimber forest-based industries in the Philippines. Hence, the country takes pride in having valuable rattan resources in abundance mostly in rainforests, suitable habitat for rattan. It was said that wherever there was a forest, rattan would thrive. However, because of over exploitation as a response to the growing international demand for furniture, baskets, handbags and other products made of rattan and due to the degradation of natural habitat, the supply of raw rattan canes has now reached its critical level. If conservation and cultivation measures are not initiated at the earliest possible time, wild stands of rattan may face extinction. 

Rattan grows naturally in the Dipterocarp, as well as in submarginal and mossy forests. Based on the records of the Forest Management Bureau (1990), the country still has a natural forest cover of 6.3 million hectares excluding brushlands (Table 1). Out of the 6.3 million hectares, the remaining Dip terocarp (old growth and residual) and sub-marginal and mossy forests comprise 6.1 million hectares (Table 2), most of which are found in Regions 2, 4, 10, 11 and 12. The species composition and density of rattan vary significantly in different regions. The old growth forests of Regions 1,2,10 and 11 had the highest average length of rattan harvested per hectare which were 1811,1947,1972 and 1873 lineal meters, respectively (Table 3). In the residual forests of Region 2 and 4, the highest average length of rattan were 1488 and 2125 lineal meters per hectare, respectively (Table 4). 

In 1988, it was estimated that the country had 1.8 billion lineal meters of rattan in the old growth forest and 2.8 billion lineal meters in the residual forest, or an aggregate length of 4.4 billion lineal meters of poles of different diameter sizes (Table 5). However, for rattan poles with diameter equal to and greater than 2 cm for all species, there were 724.8 million lineal meters and 908 million lineal meters within the old growth forests and residual forests, respectively, or an aggregate of 1.6 billion lineal meters. The DENR 1987 R.P.-German Inventory reported that among rattan species commonly harvested, palasan (Calamus mevrillii) and limuran (Calanws ornatzrs var. philippinensis) dominated the bulk of cane resources. Classified into two diameter classes, <2 cm and >2 cm, palasan and limuran constituted 55 percent of the total resources. These species comprised over 75 percent of the large diameter and 42 percent of the small diameter rattan (Table 6). From these figures, it appears that rattan resources are inexhaustible. However, even with this estimate, rattan needs to be protected. Protection can be done by: conserving its habitat; controlling illegal cutting; and managing or regulating the harvesting of rattan. In 1993, there were 370 cutting contracts awarded to individuals, corporations and indigenous cultural communities with an allowable cut of 209.1 million lineal meters (1993 Forestry Statistics, FMB). In the same year, the harvested canes totalled 24.85 million lineal meters. Establishment of more rattan plantations will augment raw material supply and at the same time decrease pressure on wild populations of rattan. The estimated 3 million hectares of brush lands and 3.36 million hectares of residual forests are potential sites for rattan plantations. Likewise, the already established reforestation areas of DENR for the purpose of either protecting watersheds or rehabilitating degraded areas can also be planted with rattan.

There are 91 taxa known to be distributed among the following four genera: Calamtrs (70); Daemonorops (14); Korthalsia (5); and, Plectocomia (2) (Fernando, 1990). The checklist (Appendix Bamboo and Rattan Genetic Resources in Certain Asian Countries A) prepared by Fernando became the main reference for most researchers for identification of rattans in Philippines. Among the 91 taxa in the checklist, the following species are of high economic value:

Among the 45 species of Calamus, 32 are endemic to Philippines. In the genus Daemonorops, 12 of the 14 species are endemic; in Korthalsia 2 of the 5 species are endemic; and, in Plectocomia, 1 of the 2 species is endemic. 

Rattans are distributed throughout the country, from Batanes to Tawi-Tawi Islands.Among the four genera, Calamtrs is the largest and most widely distributed genus. Many species of Calamus are narrow endemics confined to specific islands or mountains. The same is true of Daemonorops, Korthalsia and Plectocomia which have even more restricted distribution. In Korthalsia, 3 species are found in Palawan, 2 in Mindanao and 1 in Luzon. In Plectocomia, 1 species is found in the primary forest of Mindanao and Leyte and 1 variety in Palawan. 

Rattans are widely distributed in the mountains of Sierra Madre, Central Cordillera, Mt. Isarog, Mt. Halcon, Mt. Kitanglad, Mt. Hilong-hilong, Mt. Makiling and in the mountains of Agusan, Davao, Surigao, Cotabato and Zamboanga. The islands of Panay, Basilan, Batanes, Mindoro, and Palawan are particularly rich in rattan. The botanical exploration of the Hillshog Forestry in Palawan yielded a collection of at least 22 species of rattan, four of which are endemic in 13 localities (Appendix B). Most of the taxa found in Palawan are of Bornean origin. The most widely distributed of the Philippine rattan species i(Daemonorops mollis). This is followed by Tandulang parang (Calamus usitattis) which could be found in Batan Island, Babuyan Island, Zambales, Laguna, Quezon, Camarines Norte and Sorsogon. Palasan ranks third in distribution and is generally found in the mountain ranges of Sierra Madre, Cordillera, Kitanglad, Isarog, Halcon and Caraballo. Limuran is well distributed in Luzon, particularly in the mountains of Laguna, Bicol, Quezon, Rizal, Camarines Norte, Camarines Sur and Sorsogon. 

The distribution of rattan in four provinces was studied by Tandug (1984). The survey areas included Palawan, Laguna, Agusan de1 Sur and Davao de1 Norte. There were 27 species, six of these are of commercial value. The harvestable cane of the mature plants is about 4 to 16 percent per hectare. The remaining rattan stands mostly comprise of wildlings. Limuran was dominant in the survey areas, with about 1689 lineal meters per hectare. 

Species of the genus Korthalsia are found in Quezon, Leyte, Surigao de1 Norte and Surigao de1 Sur, Palawan and Camarines Sur. The Plectocomia is found in Palawan, Bukidnon, and Leyte. Rattans in the Philippines are found from near sea level up to more than 2000 m as1 in the primary forests. Generally, most rattan species have a wide altitudinal range, although there are some species which tend to have specific ranges. Appendix C presents the occurrence and altitudinal ranges of some rattan species. 

The rampant cane harvesting in nature reserves and national parks is threatening the stability of the wild rattan population. So, it is important that collecting of genetic materials for ex situ conservation be carried out immediately, while there are still few virgin forests left. Among the Philippine rattan, palasan was considered to be most vulnerable or threatened species (Tan, Fernando and Rojo 1986). Because of the need to produce planting materials for massive reforestation, wild populations of rattan have become the only main sources. The source of propagules is itself a great problem for large-scale production of nursery seedling stocks. As a measure against the open destruction of forest reserves, ex situ and in situ conservation are now considered partly the solution to safeguard the loss of rattan genetic materials in the country.  Bamboo and Rattan Genetic Resources in Certain Asian Countries

Ninety percent of raw rattan comes from the wild. These natural stands now face rapid depletion because of rampant timber harvesting, conversion of forest areas into other land uses and the unregulated cutting of rattan which reduces regeneration. Alarmed by the dwindling supply of raw materials and the total export ban of rattan by Indonesia (from where the Philippines used to depend for pole supply), the rattan cottage and furniture manufacturers alerted the government of an imminent collapse of the industry As an immediate response, development of an artificial plantation was initiated to possibly rescue the industry from total collapse. As early as 1980, the then Ministry of Natural Resources (MNR) realized that rattan resources may not sustain the lucrative rattan-based industries. Hence, guidelines for rattan resources management and development was provided. On plantation development, the Bureau of Forest Development issued the revised regulations. The latter provided further that members of cultural communities have the priority in leasing areas, within or adjacent their reservations, for rattan plantation development. This gave the minority communities the recognition as partners of the government in the conservation of resources close to their way of life as hunters and gatherers. In 1989, the Department of Environment and Natural Resources (DENR) encouraged and accelerated the establishment of rattan plantations by the public and private sectors. In the Master Plan for Forestry Development (1992), the DENR set a physical target of 290,000 hectares for rattan plantations, to be accomplished by both the private and government sectors over a period of 25 years. This approach to augment the supply of rattan pole and prevent any shortage was deemed justified. 

Based on a survey, owners of rattan industries suggested that in the establishment of rattan plantations, the use of large diameter species, preferably palasan and limuran should be the priority. Lately, small diameter species have also gained wide utilization. Hence, sika (Calamus caesius) and tumalim (Calamtls mindorensis) need to be cultivated as well. For other small diameter species, recent and most of them are noncommercial species and underutilized. However, recent development in the design of furniture using small diameter canes may increase harvesting of the lesser-used and of the low-commercial value rattan species. This is expected to deplete the resources of such canes and appropriate management practices will have to be put in place.

In1977,the then Forest Research Institute (FORI)established the initial trial planning of commercial species of rattan in Pagbilao, Quezon. Under this scheme,rattan were introduced under various canopies:uner residual forest;under agricultural perennials.Seeds and wildings sourced from Quezon,Laguna and Camarines provinces were used as planting materials.Seeding were raised in the nursery prior to field planting. At present,about 200 hectares are planted with palasan and limuran in Pagbilao.

Having shown the feasibility of growing rattan artificially, the National Development Corporation (NDC) through the Rattan Development Company (RDC) ventured into the first commercial and industrial rattan plantation in Mindanao. The plantation is located within the concessions of the Paper Industries Corporation (PICOP) and the Bislig Bay Lumber Company in Surigao del Sur. The planting stocks, both seeds and wildlings, were collected in the natural forest of the concession in Surigao de1 Sur and as far as Davao province. In this plantation, the growing palasan exhibited some morphological variations. After five to eight years from outplanting, some palasan produced suckers, indicating they are of the "clumping type." This growth behavior may be attributed to some ecological factors affecting its growth or it may be a genetic manifestation of the species. The rosette stage in the plantation also seems to last long. The total plantation established in a period of eight years (1984-1992) was 5185 hectares. Other naturally growing rattan within the established plantation of palasan and limuran in PICOP include: ulisi (Calamus aidae); paang dalaga (Plectocomia elmeri); bugtongan (Calamus multinervis); and, dilot (Daemonorops pedicellaris) (DENR 1994). Another private company, the Swedish Match Hillshog Philippines, Inc., in cooperation with the Provident Tree Farms, Inc.,  In 1977, the then Forest Research Institute (FORI) established the initial trial planting of commercial species of rattan in Pagbilao, Quezon. Under this scheme, rattans were introduced under various canopies: under residual forests; under coconut plantations; and, under agricultural perennials. Seeds and wildlings sourced from Quezon, Laguna and Camarines provinces were used as planting materials. Seedlings were raised in the nursery prior to field planting. At present, about 200 hectares are planted with palasan and limuran in Pagbilao. established a 50 hectare plantation in Mindoro Island and a 150 hectare plantation in Talacogon, Agusan Province. In both companies, the species planted were only palasan and limuran. Accidentally, other species were mixed within these plantations. Planting stocks were wildlings/ germinants collected on the forest floor, which are difficult to identify. Also, in the Mindoro plantation Calamzls manan, an exotic species from Malaysia, was introduced.

As part of the technology transfer programme of the DENR, through the research stations of FOR1 (now ERDB), demonstration plantings in all 13 regions were initiated in 1986 to show the potential of rattan plantation as a livelihood source. A minimum of 5 hectares were set up inside every experimental forest of the research station. Simultaneously, research studies to improve the technologies of rattan production were incorporated. Again, the species used were only palasan and limuran. At times, other species were used, whenever available in the locality.   

In 1983, the Iloilo National College of Agriculture in Lambunao established a 3-hectare rattan plantation. Various solitary type rattan species found in their vicinity were used as planting materials. In Nabas, Aklan a rattan farm was integrated with agroforestry system with primary crops of mostly perennials. The rattan seeds were broadcasted initially. Later the seedlings were thinned out and planted in other parts of the farm. The species cultivated were ombanan (Calamzrs dimorphacan thus var. halconensis), kalapi (Calamus ornatus var. philippinensis), saroringan (Daemonorops ochrolepis) and gatasan (Daemonorops mollis).

In Dao,Capiz, a 4-hectare farm, planted during the prewar times is still the source of rattan poles for domestic use.Asingle speciies of rattan, locally called taguiti(Calamus vidalianus),is being cultivated.About 100 plants per hectare were allowed to regenerate naturally,reaching an average cane length of 80 m (Fernando and Palaypayon 1990).

Another small-scale rattan farm is located inDavao de1 Norte, which has been maintained andprotected for about 60 years. The natural population belongs to a previously forested lowland area which was converted into ricefields. At present, the 8-ha area has palasan vigorously thriving in the open and wet rice paddies with very few perennials for support. Every two to three years, the farm yielded 500 to 700 poles (lenial meters) per hectare. The owner practiced rotation cutting cycle to allow the young shoots to regenerate. 

In Zamboanga del Sur, a farmer maintains a naturally growing palasan stand for seed production purposes. The palasan was planted among fruit trees which extended to the nearby forest. About 100 plants were maintained as seed source. Since the rattan plantation development was encouraged by the government in the late 8Os, the farmer supplied most of the planting material needs of Region 10. In Bukidnon alone, contract rattan growers, mostly NGOs, established a total of 610 hectares using seeds and gerrninants from the said farmer from Zamboanga de1 Sur. There were about 9,900 seedlings distributed to small rattan farms and individuals. Also, the Bukidnon Forest Incorporated (BFI) availed of 20,000 seedlings from this source and planted them in the mountains of Bukidnon (personal communication). 

Recognizing the high value of rattan and its potential in increasing productivity of forested areas and brushlands, rattans are considered important for reforestation programme of the country. As of December 1991, the National Forestation Development Office (NFDO) recorded a total of 4,982 hectares planted with rattan in the 13 regions of the country (Table 7). The plantations were established through "contract reforestation scheme." In almost all areas planted, the species used were palasan and limuran only Tumalim was planted only in a few regions. With regards to the sources of planting materials, NFDO has no record. Among those that responded to the radio message requesting information on areas within their administrative/jurisdiction planted to rattan were 19 Community Environment and Natural Resources Offices (CENRO). They reported a total of 4697 hectares of plantation established (Table 8) in eight regions. The plantations were established by NGOs, people’s organizations and the community through contracts with the  DENR. Only four species were used, i.e. palasan, limuran (kalapi), tumalim and ditaan. The methods and procedures used in the establishment of the plantations were adopted from the "How to Series" of DENR (1986) and PCARRD (1985). 

The genetic diversity of commercially-important species of rattan could be maintained through the establishment of plantations. However, the sourcing of seeds should consider not only the origin but also diverse sources to have a broader genetic base. Presently, the species preferred in most plantation development center 3 are two taxa only. It becomes imperative then that other economically potential species be planted in plantations for conservation purposes and future breeding work. Obtaining and using seeds from a single source (location) in order to meet the physical target, would narrow down the genetic pool of the established plantation. 

One strategy for genetic conservation outside the rattan’s natural habitat is through genebanks. It is imperative to develop a rattan genebank to conserve/preserve sources of seeds and prevent the degradation of the genetic properties of rattan resulting from continuous indiscriminate harvesting of the wild populations. The genebank can provide materials for future breeding programmes and for exchange of genetic resources to broaden genetic base of plantations. Another important information that could be generated from genebanks is the "continuous growth data assessment", from which appropriate management strategies and production schemes could be drawn. Establishment of the only living garden of rattan in the Philippines, where local and exotic species are confined in an accessible and protected area, was started in 1983. A5-hectare plantation was established in Mt. Makiling where in 44 rattan taxa were planted, collected all over the archipelago (Baja-Lapis 1983). The plantation was divided into plots, each corresponding to the year of planting, namely: Plot I (1984-85); Plot II (1986); Plot III A & B (1987-1988); and Plot IV (1991) (Appendix D). Accessing of the growth of some species was done in the said genebank. The growth performance for each taxa was assessed by measuring the height and counting the number of suckers produced (for the clump forming types). Results are shown in Appendix D. Also, the initial fruiting of Calamus ranzulosus was observed (Baja-Lapis 1992a). 

Genetic resources of rattan are tremendously reduced by human interventions. The diversity of the forest is the most prone to depletion due to the conversion of the natural forests into other nonforestry land uses. The genepool, consequently, erodes the remaining natural population causing depletion. The Philippines had earlier recognized the ecological importance of the rich tropical forest and to this effect had set aside conservation areas such as nature reserves, national parks and proclaimed watershed areas. However, the government was unable to duly protect proclaimed reservations partly because of lack of political will; low priority accorded; poor logistics; and, most importantly, low budget. 

In 1992, however, the National Integrated Protected Areas System (NIPAS) wa s promulgated into law. The Integrated Protected Areas System (IPAS) is a tool for ecological sustainability and for preserving biodiversity. It serves as "de facto" genetic reserve, including gene pools of target species of high economic value and genetic richness (Yeatman 1993). They are the most cost-effective means for preserving genes, species and habitats. The priority sites selected for IPAS included: 1. Batanes Protected Landscape and Seaslopes 2. Northern Sierra Madre (Palasan Wilderness) 3. Mangyan Heritage Natural Park (MHNP) 4. Apo Reef Marine Natural Park 5. Mt. Canlaon Natural Park (MCNP) 6. Turtle Islands Marine Natural Park 7. Siargao Island 8. Mt. Katanglad 9. Agusan Marsh and 10. Mt. Apo 

Different species of rattan could be found in these selected protected areas. Based on the IPAS project documents, personal account and other literature, four of these protected areas are identified as habitats of rare and endemic rattan taxa (Table 9). 

An in situ conservation area was established in Bislig Surigao de1 Sur, which was referred to as demonstration area in 1984. While the National Development Corporation (NDC) started the development of their rattan plantation, it set aside about 10 hectares of naturally growing rattan within the concession originally intended to serve as seed source. The area contains 13 taxa of rattan, namely: 

Although the said established plantations could be sources of seed or planting materials for plantations expansion, they are not the best sources for further testing of provenance landrace stocks. This is because proper recording as to the source of planting stocks are not maintained by most plantation managers/owners except for a few, e.g. PICOP. Hence, it seems mandatory that a national coordinating body be formed to act as a distribution agency to both national and regional plantation developers. It should also collate all data from regional testing and plantings, provide financial resources and technical assistance to the implementing regions. Regional coordinating bodies should also be put in place preferably in regions with sufficient wild rattan populations, viz. Reg. 2,4, 8, 10 and 11. These regions are to develop their genebanks and seed production areas. The ERDB could act as a national coordinating body, for the reason that it has a direct link with all the regional research offices of the DENR and linkages with other institutions both in the government and private sectors. To operate the whole programme, an estimated amount of P 2 million yearly is proposed for the financing of activities of the national coordinating body .

The country does not have the modern documentation system or any for rattan conservation activities. Information on rattan are mainly sources from literaturlibraries of the ERDB, UPLBCF and the UPLBCA library. In the UPLBCA library, some abstracts of researches were retrieved via the Silver platter programme in CDROM and AGRIS. There are also herbaria which serve as the depository of rattan specimens. In Los Banos, materials can be found in the ERDB Botany laboratory ‘cum’ herbarium, the UPCF Herbarium (LBC) and the UPLB Museum of Natural History (MNH). Moreover, many duplicates and collections of Madulid and Fernando can be found in the Philippine national Museum (PNM). Also, a set of duplicates of some specimens are found in the Royal Botanic Gardens Herbarium at Kew in the United Kingdom. Semitechnical and research articles related to rattan conservation were, likewise, published in Kalikasan: Journal of Biology, Sylvatrop, Canopy International, Philippine Lumberman, PCARRD Monitor, Rattan Information Center Bulletin, Pterocarpus, book series of the PCARRD and How to Series of the DENR.

Rattan planting stocks can be propagated either from seeds or vegetatively. Seedlings were used in small and large scale planting. Most seeds of the preferred species were collected from the wild. This was generally done by contracting members of the indigenous cultural communities. The usual practice was to send groups of fruit gatherers to the field. They were paid in kind or in cash, upon delivery of the collections. Only ripe fruits were mashed to remove and clean their scaly covering and the fleshy portion-called the "sarcotesta." The seeds were soaked in water for 24 to 28 hours until they settled at the bottom. Settled seeds wre collected and washed to remove the remaining pulp. The seeds wre kept in a cool moist place because drying decreased seed viability. Seeds were mixed with moist sawdust for 12 days. The mixture was put in a wet sack and placed in a shaded area. Immediately, the seeds were sown in seedboxes after pretreating them with pentachlorophenate to prevent fungal infection or insect attack. The seedlings were transplanted when they were about 8 cm tall.   

Repotting in polyethylene bags was done inthe nursery and the potted seedlings placed undershade. To ensure survival and vigorous growth of the seedlings, fertilizer was applied at the rate of 4.5 g per seedling. The fertilizer was applied around the seedling, approximately 1 to 1.5 cm away from the seedlings and about 1 to 2 cm deep. The seedlings were grown in the nursery for eight months or until they reached the height of 30 cm. Prior to outplanting of raised seedlings, they were graduallyexposed to increasing sunlight in the nursery by slowly removing the protective shade. Hardening lasted for six months to one year (PCARRD 1991). This hardening phase was essential to ensure high survival rate when nursery-raised seedlings were finally exposed to field conditions. 

"Germinant" is the term applied to a newly germinating seed, with epicotyl about 2 cm tall and with two to three emerging roots about 2 to 4 cm long. The germinants/wildlings were collected when they were about 8 to 10 cm tall. While still in the field, the wildlings were packed with mud and wrapped in moist sack/cloth or leaves. Upon arrival at the nursery, the wildlings were immediately potted and kept under shade. The care and maintenance for potted wildlings in the nursery followed that of the planting stocks raised from seeds. In an experiment, Baradas (1991) directly planted Calamus filispadix germinants raised in the laboratory under a mahogany plantation. The survival was from 65.78 to 71.33 percent after 11 months. Application of organic and inorganic fertilizer, watering frequency and mulching treatments improved the growth behaviour of the germinants. The use of germinants on a large scale plantation has yet to be tried for other rattan species. 

Production of rattan planting stocks by vegetative means is possible. However, these methods are not as popular as the use of seeds. Cuttings, suckers/ aerial shoots and tissue culture are presently used in many research studies. 

Suckers /aerial shoots: "Suckers" are side shoots found at the base of the mature rattan clump, while "aerial shoots" are young plants growing at the upper nodes of the stems. They are observed among clustering species. The suckers are potential planting materials but collecting them is difficult, especially when a large number is involved. Newly sprouted suckers are collected by severing them from the mother plant using sharp bolo. Suckers should not be more than 30 cm tall and should have three to five adventitious roots. For better chance of survival, they are collected during the rainy months. The collected suckers are transported to the nursery for potting. While in transit, the bunch of suckers are packed in mud and watered to prevent drying. Trimming mature leaves helps prevent excessive transpiration. However, when suckers are used as planting material, there is still high mortality of suckers in the nursery and even higher mortality when directly outplanted in the field. In a study conducted by Umali-Garcia and Fernando (1985), palasan showed the greatest potential for vegetative propagation by means of suckers. Also, smaller suckers (15 cm tall or less) of palasan showed a higher percentage of survival compared to bigger suckers. 

Cuttings: Vegetative propagation by cane cuttings was initiated on an experimental basis in UPLBCF but with very little success (Umali-Garcia and Fernando 1985). 

Embryo culture:Suckers and wildings are source of tissue blocks for meristem culture(Garcia 1985).Tissue blocks formed callus in Modified formulations,using the stem and leaf petiole as explants.Though callus formation was induce, formation of multiple shoots failed.Tissue culture is an alternative tool for mass propagation of rattan for plantation establishment as well as for breeding purposes.Patena and Barba (1984)engaged in in vitro mass propagation of lithuko (Calamus manillensis) and limuran using the multique shoot induction technique.The technique consistsof in vitro germination of seeds in rooting medium,multiple shoot induction in MS medium with cytokinin and rooting of single shoots excised from clumps of shoots previously multiplied. Garcia and Fernando(1985)reported that four species,viz.paleocene,,limuran,ditaan and panlis,Formed callus three months after germination.Of the four species,only ditaan exhibited signs of multiple bud formation.

For effective conservation strategies, the involvement and commitment of the Philippines  government, through its research and management institutions and linkages with international collaborators, are required. Under the NIPAS structure in the Philippines, the protected areas (PA) will be managed by the Protected Area Management Board (PAMB). It will be chaired by the Regional Executive Director of the DENR, who controls the activities and programmes in the PA. There will be a PAMB for each PA. This board includes representatives from local government units (LGUs) non-government organizations (NGOs), local business groups, community organizations and institutions who have interest in PAS. The board shall provide advice, planning support and mobilization of multisectoral support (Management Plan, IPAS 1992). With the PAMB in place in each proclaimed PA, all activities are required to be geared towards the protection, improvement and sustained productivity of all forest resources, including natural stands of rattan, within the PA. And because the management of the PA under PAMB will be based on a multiple-use scheme, i.e. some portion of the PA may be allocated/developed as an eco-tourism area, some as scientific and educational areas for students and other interested people, some as recreational areas, some as hunting grounds, some as regulated/limited source of raw materials for shelter and food, etc., and eventually community pressure on specific commodities within the PA will be reduced. Introduction of other non-forest-based alternative livelihood to the communities will help ease the pressure on forest resources, thus leading to increased productivity and conservation of genetic resources. The programmes of the IPAS include resource management, public use and research programs. Resource inventory is one of its major initial activities. As an example, Palawan Island was long ago regarded as a unique haven of diverse species of rattan and even considered as the last frontier of the forest ecosystem. Ten years ago, Palawan wilderness was relatively unharmed which made it an important area for conservation. As such, several organizations became interested in the development and conservation of Palawan. To name a few, these are the World Wildlife Fund (WWF), International Union for the Conservation of Nature Resources (IUCN), USAID and UNESCO and Man and the Biosphere. Also academic institutions, like Cambridge University (England) and Sterling University (Scotland), conducted research related to resources  conservation.  

Taxonomy, Systematics, Biology

Baja-Lapis, A.C. 1982. Gross morphological characteristics of twelve commercial Philippine rattans. MS Thesis. UPLB Graduate School, College, Laguna. 120 pp. 

Discusses the morphological features of 12 commercially-important taxa. Description for each taxon is based on vegetative and reproductive organs. Important taxonomic features: stem, leafsheath, presence and absence of ocrea, knee, leaflet arrangement and the presence of cirrus; emphasis on the infructescence and fruits for description of reproductive organs. Keys to the identification of commercial Calamus and Daemonorops species and twelve commercial species of rattan. 

Baja-Lapis, A.C. 1985. Some identifying characteristics of twelve rattan species in the Philippines. Canopy International 9(4):3-5

Guide to identification of 12 rattan species in the Philippines. Includes Calamus caesius, C. merrillii, C. mindorensis, C. ornatus var. philippinensis, Daemonorops mollis, D. pedicellaris and others.

Baja-Lapis, A.C. 1987 An account of taxa related to Calamus siphonospathus complex. Sylvatrop 12 (l-2):81-85. 

110 specimens of taxa related to C. siphonospathus from five herbaria in various parts of the world were sorted and examined. Some 15 taxa were recognized. A list of diagnostic characteristics and a key to the identification of the taxa includes description, vernacular, names, notes and list of specimens. 

Beccari, O.D. 1919. The palms of the Philippine Islands. Collected and distributed by A.D. Elmer. Leaflets on Philippine Botany. Art. 120:2997-3067.

Describes a species of Korthalsia from Irosin, Sorsogon. Latin description and field notes for Plectocomia elmerii Becc. Includes description of 10 species of Daemonorops. Twenty three species of Calamus are mentioned. 

Beccari, 0.1919. The Palms of the Philippine islands. Philippine Journal Science (Botany) 14(3):342-359.  

Enumerates Lepidocaryoid palm species of the genera Plectocomia, Daemonorops and Calamus. Conspectus of species, local sources, vernacular names, collectors and collectors’ numbers are given. 

Brown, W.C. 1920. Minor Products of the Philippine Forest. DANR Technical Bulletin, Bureau of Forestry, Manila. 22(l); 158-179.

Information on the distribution, average annual production, utilization and taxonomy of Philippine rattan. 

Cali, N.C. 1988. Silvical characteristics of Calamtrs merrillii Becc. Undergraduate Thesis Araneta University and Foundation. 

Deals with silviculture characteristics of Paleocene. Discussion includes distribution of species, botanical description, stem and leaf features, floral and fruit characteristics, phenology, local names, habitat conditions, seed production and dissemination, seedling development and growth rate. 

Dransfield, J. 1979. Report of Consultancy on rattan development. FAO Regional Office for Asia and the Far East, Bangkok. 40 pp. 

Research and development related to rattan taxonomy, silviculture, processing and utilization in Thailand, Philippines, Indonesia and Malaysia are discussed in this consultancy report. Recommendations are put forward for the development of rattan on a regional basis.

Dransfield, J. 1980. On the identity of sika in Palawan. Kalikasan 9(1):43-48. 

Sika is identified as Calamtrs caesius. Three other species of rattan such as Calamus scipionum, Korthalsia rigida and Plectocomia sp. are new records; discussion of related Philippine species; cultivation of C. caesius.

Dransfield, J. 1981. A synopsis of the genus Korthalsia (Palmae: Lepidocaryoideae). Kew Bulletin 36(1):163-194. 

Discussion on morphology, natural history and ecology of the rattan genus Korthalsia Bl. prior to a synopsis of all species. K. jala and K. furtaduana description are new.Explains area of synonymy and nomenclature and taxonomic confusion.  

Fernando, E.S. 1987. Aerial and internodal suckering and branching in Calamus merrillii. RIC Bulletin 6(3-4):5-6. 

Explains the aerial and internodal suckering behavior of naturally growing palasan and branching habit in the wild. 

Fernando, E.S. 1988. Four new taxa of Philippine rattans (Palmae: Calamoideae) Garden Bulletin, Singapore 41(2):49-58. 

Describes new taxa of rattan from the Philippines: Calamtrs aidae E. Fern.; C. balerensis E. Fern.; C. ornattrs Blume var. pulverulentus E. Fern.; and, Daemonorops polita E. Fern. from recent intensive collection of herbarium material.

Fernando, E.S. 1989. Rattan Resources of the Philippines (Summary). Pp. 256-257 in Plant Resources of Southeast Asia: Proceedings of the PROSEA First International Symposium, 22-25 May 1989, Jakarta, Indonesia (J.S. Siemonsma and N. Wulijarni-Soethipto, eds.) Pudoc, Wageningen. 

Fernando, E.S. 1990. Diversity and conservation status of Philippine rattans. RIC Bulletin 9(2):7- 11. 14 and 21. 

Deals with the recent status of rattan flora in the Philippines. Additional taxa of four genera of rattans; valuable botanical and ecological information based on field collection, observation and herbarium work; checklist of Philippine rattans. 

Madulid, D.A. 1979. Comments on the present state of taxonomic knowledge of the rattans in S.E. Asia. Canopy International 6(6):10-11. 

Madulid, D.A. 1980. Chemotaxonomic studies on Plectocomia (Palmae: Lepidocaryiodeae). Kalikasan: Philippine Journal of Biology 9(1):69-80. 

Chemical analysis of 33 leaflet samples from 14 species of Plectocomia for flavonoid patterns: two flavonoids found; differences in flavonoid content sufficient to distinguish certain species or groups of species in the genus. 

Madulid, D.A. 1980. Palynological studies in the genus Plectocomia (Palmae: Lepidocaryoideae) Kalikasan: For. Res. J. of Biology 9(1):69-80. 

Systematic analysis of pollen grains from nine species of Plectocomia for taxonomic delimitation. Significant differences in shape, size and ornamentation of pollen grains could help distinguish certain species or groups of species but generally do not correlate well with gross morphological evidences. 

Madulid, D.A. 1980. Notes on the reproductive biology of rattans. 1. Pollination in Plectocomia. Sylvatrop Philippine Forestry Research Journal 5(2):157-160. 

Insights in pollination studies of Plectocomia. Methods of pollination in palms: anemophily; entomophily. 

Madulid, D. 1981. A monograph of Plectocomia (Palmae: Lepidocaryoideae). Kalikasan 10(l): l-94. 

Monograph of rattan genus Plectocomia Mart. ex Blume based on morphology, anatomy, phytochemistry, palynology, geography and ecology. Includes new descriptions of four species and one variety from Plectocomia penicillate.

Madulid D.A. 1985. Philippine rattans with edible fruits.RIC Bulletin 4(2-4).  

Describes the fruiting habit of Calamus manillensis, an edible and invaluable rattan species among Ifugaos of the Mountain Province. 

Merrill, E.D. 1912.A Flora of Manila. Bureau of Printing, Manila. 491 pp.

Compilation of species of vascular cryptogams and flowering plants growing naturally in Manila and vicinity. General description of Calamtrs mollis Blanco is included.

Merrill, E.D. 1922. An Enumeration of Philippine flowering plants Bureau of Printing, Manila. 

Account on climbing palms in the Philippines. Genera of rattans: ecology; distribution; important features; and, vernacular names. 

Shim, P.S. 1989. Aerial shoots of Calamus merrillii Becc., RIC Bulletin 8(1-4):10.

Brief description of the three habits of Calamus merrillii. Production of basal suckers; solitary stems. Emphasis on production of aerial shoots.     

Genetic Improvement (5 year programme)

Recently, the Philippines enacted the National Integrated Protected Areas System (NIPAS Law) as govern-a major response to the conservation of genetic resources and biological diversity including the conservation enhancement of biological diversity of plants and animals (Catibog-Sinha 1993). The legal instrument for Philippine conservation of genetic resources is well in place. However, the high biological diversity offers a wide concern for specific resource. Rattan is an important nontimber forest product which has a long chain of dependents. Its disappearance in the wild may severely dislocate a number of people that rely on it for subsistence and may strike an imbalance in ecological structure in some provinces. Rattan is one forest resource that should be the subject of research and development strategies for continuous and  effective perpetuation. In line with the govern-a ment’s thrusts, the strategies for conservation as enumerated in Philippine Master Plan for Forestry (1990) include the sustainable management of existing resources, utilization of noncommercial species, improved harvesting and utilization technologies, strict implementation of existing regulations and plantation establishment. The approach to conservation should be a combination of proper management and utilization. To ease pressure on the wild stocks, plantation development should be encouraged to augment the imminent scarcity of supply The national programme for rattan conservation and genetic improvement should include the following 10 activities. 

Objectives: 1. To determine number of individuals per population and number of population per species. 2. To monitor rates of resource depletion of priority species caused by commercial exploration. 3. To conduct true valuation of rattan as a forest resource. 

Duration: 3 years

Cost Estimates: P 2.0 million

Objective: To identify, map and study growth behavior and morphological details of different provenances. 

Duration: 3 years 

Expected output: Identified, tested and verified characteristics of superior rattan strains. 

Cost estimates: P 1.5 million

Objectives:1. To refine technologies of production for fast adaptability.2. Toenchance economic production through improved production techniques.

Duration: 2 years

Expected output: Package of appropriate cultivation technologies for optimum production.

Cost estimates:P 1.5 million

Objectives: 1. To understand the reproductive behavior of selected rattan species. 2. To study the eco-biological relationship that can improve regeneration. 

Duration: 3 years Expected output: Information on reproductive biology.

Cost estimates: P 1.5 million

Objectives: 1. To establish plantations utilizing other large diameter species. 2. To secure planting stocks from the wild populations. 3. To determine growth performance of wild strains. 

Duration: 5 years 

Expected output: Established plantations of superior strains of indigenous species. 

Cost estimates:P 2.5 million

Activity 6: Delineation and demarkation of rattan seed production areas (SPA) within the protected areas: An in situ conservation strategy. 

Objectives: 1. To establish seed production areas for potential high economic species. 2. To protect the SPA involving indigenous cultural communities (ICC). 

Duration: 3 years 

Expected output: Established seed production area as a source of rattan seed supply. 

Cost estimates: P 2.0 million

Activity 7: Regulatory and harvesting study for sustainable rattan production. 

Objectives: 1. To generate information on the adequate level of commercial exploration that can allow preservation of genetic diversity. 2. To develop harvesting technology for maximum utilization of merchantable canes. 3. To assess impact of harvesting to genetic diversity. 

Duration: 2 years 

Expected output: To determine the level of harvest for sustainable production and maintain genetic diversity. 

Activity 8: Ex situ conservation 

Objective: 1. To establish regional rattan genebanks in the Philippines. 

Duration: 5 years 

Expected output: Establish 5 regional gene banks 

Cost estimates: P 3.0 million 

Activity 9: Policy Studies on rattan conservation 

Objectives: 1. To consolidate, review and evaluate existing laws, memoranda administrative orders, implementing guidelines and the like related to rattan conservation. 2. To identify gaps in policies towards attaining a comprehensive programme on rattan conservation.

Duration: 1 year 

Expected output: 1. Improved policies related to rattan conservation. 2. Formulated new and relevant policies. 

Cost Estimates: P 200,000.00

Activity 10: Human Resource and Institutional Development 

Objectives: 1. To strengthen technical capability of personnel through both academic and practical training. 2. To develop laboratory facilities of research institutions involved in rattan conservation, research and development. 

Duration: 3 years 

Expected output:1. Capable and competent technical personnel and improved laboratory facilities. 

Cost Estimates: P 5.0 million 

The National Programme On Rattan Conservation And Genetic Improvement will entail an estimated total cost of P 12.3 M or an equivalent of $492,000 US for a period of l-5 years depending on the programmes outlined above. 

Baja-Lapis, A. C. 1982. Gross morphological characteristics of twelve commercial Philippine rattan. MS Thesis. UFLB Graduate School, College, Laguna. 120 pp. 

Baja-Lapis, A.C. 1985. Some identifying characteristics of twelve rattan species in the Philippines. Canopy International 9(4):3-5. 

Baja-Lapis, A.C. 1987. An account of taxa related to Calamus siphonospathus complex. Sylvatrop 12 (l-2):81-85. 

Baja-Lapis, AC. 1992. Initial fruiting of Calamus ramulosus (Palmae: Calamoideae) at the rattan gene bank Sylvatrop 2(2): 42-45 pp.

Baja-Lapis, A.C. 1992. Rattan species diversity, distribution and characteristics. Paper presented during the first UNAC Conference on Rattan Industry: Issues and concerns. Phil. Social Development Center (PSDC) Manila. 14 May. 14 PP. 

Baja-Lapis, A.C. and G. Santos. 1993. Establish-ment of rattan gene bank - a Philippine experience. Poster paper presented in the International Symposium on Genetic Conservation and Pro-duction of Tropical Forest Tree Seeds, Chiangmai, Thailand. 14-16 June. 18 pp. (Unpublished). 

Baja-Lapis, A.C. 1994. Vegetation Ecology. In: Environmental Impact Assessment for the Northern Negros Proposed Geothermal Project. PNOC. Quezon City. 

Baradas, EC. 1991. Growth responses of tagiktik (Calamus filispadix Becc.) germinants outplanted in a mahagoni (Swietenia macrophylla King) plantation, fertilization, watering and mulching treatments. MS Thesis. UPLB Graduate School. 

Beccari, 0. D. 1919. The palms of the Philippine Islands. Philippine Journal of Science (Botany) 14(3):295-362. 

Catibog-Sinha, C. 1993. Implications of the NIPAS law for conservation of genetic resources in the Philippines. Pp. 214-220. in Proc. Int’l. Symposium on Genetic Conservation and Production of Tropical Forest Tree Seed. 14-16 June. Chiangmai, Thailand. 

DENR. 1989. Memorandum Circular No. 18 Series of 1989.

DENR. 1989. Administrative Order No. 4, Series of 1989. 

DENR. 1989. Administrative Order No. 4-1, Series of 1989. 

DENR. 1994. Assessment of the PICOP-NDC Rattan Management Project in Bislig, Surigao Sur, final Report. 30 pp.

Dransfield, J. 1980. On the identity of sika in Palawan, Philippines. Kalikasan: Philippine Journal of Biology 9( 1):43-48. 

Fernando, E. S. 1988. Four new taxa of Philippine rattan (Palmae: Calamoiedae) Garden Bulletin Singapore 41(2):49-58. 

Fernando, E.S. and W.R. Palaypayon. 1990. Small scale rattan farming: notes on a case study of two sites in Panay. Pp. 95-97. in rattan: Ecotech Center, Lahug, Cebu City. 

Fernando, E.S. 1990. Diversity and conservation status of Philippine rattan. RIC Bulletin 9(2):7-11. 14 and 21. 

Forestry Statistics. 1993. Forest Management Bureau DENR. 180 pp. 

Gonzales, L.G. and A.C. Baja-Lapis. 1991. Establishment of Philippine rattan gene bank at Mt. Makiling. Canopy International. 17(2): l-9 and In The Phil. Lumberman. 39:17-21. 

Hillshog ForestryA.B. 1985. The Palawan botanical expedition: final report. PAWB Library Q.C. Pp. 89. 

IPAS. 1991. Management plan for the Palawan wilderness area. Feasibility and socio-economic study group. Economic Development Foundation. PAWB Library 40pp+3 figures. 

IPAS. 1992. Management Plans for the Mt. Canlaon National Park, Batanes Is., Mangyan Heritage, Mt. Kitanglad, Mt.Apo and Turtle Is. PAWB Library.

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NIPAS. 1992. Act. R.A. No. 7586 and Implemen-ting rules and regulations DAO. 25, S 1992. 

Pabuayon, I.M. 1991. Natural resource accounting: rattan technical report no. 5. Natural Resources Accounting Project National. Institute of Geological Sciences. Quezon City. Pp. 44. 

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Sema, C. 1990. Rattan resource supply situation and management. Pp. 5-22. in. Rattan. Proceedings of the National Symposium/ Workshop. Ecotech Center, Lahug, Cebu City l-3 June 1988. 

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Forest Department

Rajamalwatta Road

Colombo, Sri Lanka

The island of Sri Lanka has a land area of about 6.5 million hectares. Topographically the country consists of a highland area in the South Central part of the island which rises to about 2500 m with lowland plains surrounding it. The climate is tropical and maritime. Three major climatic zones can be recognized based on the rainfall pattern: the wet zone (over 2500 mm/ year), intermediate zone (1800-2500 mm/year) and the dry zone (below 1800 mm/year) which has a markably seasonal rainfall regime and where dry conditions prevail from May to September. The natural vegetation follows the pattern of the country’s (around 1.6% per year) climatic zonation. The rapid population increase in Sri Lanka, around 1.6% per year, over the past few decades has had its impacts on the natural forests. The closed canopy forest cover has diminished at an alarming rate and at present the land cover is estimated at 23.8% of the area of the country. The per capita forest land has declined from 0.35 ha. in 1956 to 0.08 ha in 1992. Currently, the major source of rattans is present in the declining natural forests.

Sri Lanka has a total population of 17.4 million and about 74% of the people still live in rural areas. It has been estimated that about 30% of the rural population in most of the areas has some form of involvement in collection or utilization of rattan. For a long period of time, people living around natural forests have been gathering rattans for their day to day requirements as well as the raw material for the cottage industry. Until recently rattan was considered as a "minor forest product", however it has now been recognized for its multifaceted uses and for the contribution rattan makes to the rural economy. In 1984, bamboo/rattan research project of the Forest Department and International Development Research Centre (IDRC) was commenced and valuable research on propagation and cultivation of rattan was carried out. A taxonomic survey of all the rattan species of Sri Lanka was also done, but most of the findings of this programme still remain largely unutilized. The national policy for Wildlife Conservation (1988) and National Forestry Sector Policy (1994) emphasize the need for multiple use management permitting the sustainable use of non-wood forest products (NWFP) from all forests including most of the protected areas. The modern forestry management recognizes the importance of diversity of forest products particularly NWFP such as rattans. The Forestry Sector Master Plan (1995) has identified the development of NWFP sector as one of the priority areas.

Rattans are a group of plant species belonging to the subfamily Calamoideae, comprising 13 genera and 568 species, distributed throughout tropical Asia and Africa (De Zoysa and Vivekanandan 1994). The most widespread genus is Calamus, distributed from West Africa to Fiji, and from South China to Queensland. It is the largest genus of rattans which is represented by 370 species (IDRC 1979). All the Sri Lankan rattans belong to the genus Calamus.

In Sri Lanka, rattans are represented by ten species, all belonging to the genus, Calamus. Seven out of the ten species are endemic in the country (Table 1). The other three species are also found in South India and C. rotang is found also in Burma. Of the Sri Lankan rattans, the first to be documented was Calamus rotang in two pre-Linnean publications; in RHermann’s "Museum Zeylanicum" in 1717 and in J. Burmann’s "Thesaurus Zeylanicus" in 1737 and subsequently by Linnaeus in "Flora Zeylanica". The remaining species were documented by Thwaites (1864), Beccari (1892) and Trimen in 1898. (De Zoysa and Vivekanandan, 1987). These descriptions were based on the herbarium specimens collected during the period of 1835-1863. This collection which includes several type specimens is available in the National Herbarium at Peradeniya. Under the IDRC Bamboo and Rattan Project, fresh herbarium collections were made during 1984- 1986 for taxonomic survey of the rattan resources in Sri Lanka. Under this project, all ten species of rattans available in the country were collected, illustrated and described. An attempt was also made to standardize the local names used for various rattan species in the country. This work has been published by the Sri Lanka Forest Department as an Illustrated Field Guide, "Rattans of Sri Lanka" (De Zoysa and Vivekanandan 1994). Table 1 shows information on Sri Lankan rattan species, their local names and conservation status.

These Sri Lankan rattan species include three large diameter rattans, four small diameter and three very small diameter rattans. Of these species, all three large diameter rattans and three of the small and very small diameter categories are used on commercial scale. The rest of the species are used locally in areas where they are available. Table 2 indicates the size categories and the commercial importance of the various species.

All endemic rattan species except C. rivalis are confined to the lowlands (below 1000 m) and lower montane areas (1000-1500 m) in the Wet Zone. This includes areas with mean annual rain fall of over 2500 mm in lowlands and over 1800 mm in lower montane zone mainly south-western part of the country, southern slopes of the central hills and limited areas in the Knuckles Region.

C. rivalis occurs both in the wet and intermediate zones mainly in the northern wet lowlands and the intermediate zone. These intermediate zone areas have an annual rainfall of 1800-2500 mm and a marked dry period of about 3 months. All seven endemic species are confined to the Lowland Rain Forests in the lowlands and Sub Montane Forests in the lower montane areas (see Table 3). The habitat of C. rivalis extends up to Moist Monsoon Forests in the northern lowlands and eastern parts of the country. Of the remaining three species C. pseudotenuis and C. thwaitesii are also found in the Lowland Rain Forests in and Sub Montane Forests, but later extends through the Wet Lowlands and mid-country to the intermediate zone forests. (Moist Monsoon Forests). C. thwaitesii also occurs in several isolated hills in the dry zone such as Ritigala, Gunners Quoin, Nilgala and Sigiriya due to the moist microclimate in these isolated hills (De Zoysa and Vivekanandan 1994). It has been reported that the flora of these hills has an affinity to that of the wet and intermediate zone. C. rotang is the only rattan species found exclusively in the dry and intermediate zones where it grows in thickets along edges of streams, ponds and marshes. The forest types associated with this rattan species are Moist Monsoon Forests in the intermediate zone (1800-2500 mm) and Dry Monsoon Forests in the dry zone (below 1800 mm). The rattan species are a conspicuous elements in the seasonally inundated flood plains in the Mahaweli Ganga lower basin.

Rattan species